最棒的英文寫作教程(六)

寫作不是個一次性的行為，寫作是個過程。讓人留下記憶的作品不僅來自第一次草稿，而是來自改寫，修改。通過修改，你可以使自己文章品質的提高得到保證。如果你省去修改這個過程，你將大大減少你 的文章可能成為好文章的機會。

每當你寫文章休息的時候，每一次你回過頭來用一種新的觀點再讀一遍。根據這三個要素（內容，結構和趣味性）盡可能客觀地進行分析。先不必擔心表面的失誤和拼寫錯誤，相反，要集中注意大的問題。 考慮對支持細節進行重新排序，刪除無關的部分，把自己的經驗更深刻的含義說清楚。使更加重要的論點突出出來。注意那些可能只是隱含的要點並加以詳盡說明。

51edit.com 網站在編輯和修改過程中將為你提供有效地的幫助。我們的哈佛大學的教育編輯已經修改過數以千計的入學申請的作文，他們能夠將枯燥乏味的文章改成充滿活力的個性化文章。我們將仔細地修改每一篇文 章以提高其引言段與結論段、邏輯與轉折、內容、以及語法等方面的效果。需瞭解有關我們服務的更多資訊，請訪問我們的編輯欄目。

為了弄清什麼地方需要修改，你需要從盡可能多的不同的角度來讀你自己的文章。無論是你或是你的朋友、我們哈佛大學的專業編輯、家庭成員或教師，以下這些問題都將指導你的修改過程。

一、修改專案表

內容

內容指文章的內容和你發出的資訊。關於文章內容，你可問問自己以下幾個問題：
1、 我是否回答了所問的問題了？
2、 我是否用例子支持說明自己提出的要點？是否用了具體的和個人的例子？
3、 我是否夠詳細具體？（追求概括性的語言。把概括性的語言改為詳細說明。）
4、 別的人有否可能已經寫過這篇文章？
5、 該文章對我有何意義？在列出你在自己文章中所用的所有辭彙之後——直接地或間接地——描寫自己，問一問：這一個辭彙清單是否準確地代表了我？
6、 該作文聽起來是否象我？是否有個性、隨意，而不是過分簡潔或語氣生硬？
7、 就引言段而言，是否有個性？是否太一般化？沒有引言段，文章能開展下去嗎？
8、 文章中的哪些成分使得它給人以深刻印象？

結構

如果你的想法沒有加以適當的排列，文章的意思就可能模糊不清。你的文章應該象一張交通圖那樣明瞭，引導讀者得出必然的結論。
1、全面檢查文章的結構，檢查第一句。按順序寫下每一段的第一個句子並一個一個地讀下去，然後問： 1） 要是有人唯讀這幾個句子，他們是否還能準確瞭解我想要說的？
2） 所有段落的第一個句子是否表達我的所有觀點？
3） 我的想法是否自然流暢，或它們是否沒有條理或與自己的專業無關？
2、現在再回到整篇文章，問如下問題：
1） 每一段是否緊扣第一句所引出的思想？
2） 每一個證據是否支持每一個論點？證據是否有力？
3、每一段是否長度相當？仔細看看各段頁面是否平衡？（如果某一段比其他段落明顯地要長，那麼你可能試圖把不多個想法塞進那一段。）
4、你的結論是否從前面的段落自然地得出？
5、我的句子長度和結構是否有變化？

趣味性

許多人在修改和重寫自己的作文時只考慮技術性細節，但是，我們知道趣味性是讓錄取官員能繼續讀你的文章並能記得它的的因素。你可帶著這樣一個“趣味性等式”看一看你的文章：個性化 + 細節 = 趣味性。回答以下問題：
1、 開頭段是否個性化？
2、 我是否以描寫個人行動或形象開始？
3、 文章是告知讀者還是向讀者說明？
4、 我用的辭彙是否屬於我的辭彙的一部分？（如果不是，把它們去掉。）
5、 在可能的地方是否用了主動語態？
6、 是否濫用形容詞和副詞？
7、 是否消除陳腐用語？
8、 是否刪除贅詞？
9、 在我聽來，文章是否有趣？（如果你覺得乏味，想像一下它對其他人又會是如何。）
10、 結尾是否能給讀者完整的感覺？最後一句是否象結論性的一句？

校對

在你對自己文章的結構和內容感到滿意之後，就該檢查一下語法，拼寫，列印錯誤之類的問題。你能立即找出明顯的問題，如 錯拼或錯用的詞、看起來好象沒結束的句子、或用得不當的標點符號。繼續改寫，直到你的用詞表達你想要說的。問一問這些問題：
1、 標點符號是否用得正確？
2、 是否消除了感嘆號（除了對話外）？
3、 大寫是否清楚、一致？
4、 主語與動詞在“數”方面是否一致？
5、 句號和逗號是否放在引號裏邊？
6、 是否儘量少用縮略語？撇號是否撇得是地方？
7、 是否在每份新的申請書上都換上適當的學校的名稱？
8、 是否找出所有的列印錯誤？（可以用“拼寫檢查”，但務必每改一次就檢查並復查一次。電腦畢竟是電腦。）

最後步驟

大聲朗讀自己的文章：為了有助於進一步對你的文章進行潤色，要大聲朗讀。你的耳朵會發覺那些語法錯誤和拗口的語言，這會使你感到驚訝。這也將使你發現文章的流暢程度，使你注意任何不連貫或不協 調的地方。好的作品和好的音樂一樣都有一定的節奏。你自己的文章聽起來如何？是否有趣味性，是否有變化，或者是冗長乏味和枯燥單調？

請專專業人士修改你的文章：花了數百美元買了備考課程和考試指南之後，你一定要非常有信心，否則在整個申請過程的最可控制的方面，你還得尋求專業人士的指導。


祝賀你！
你已經完成該課程。
我們衷心祝你在整個申請過程中好運。

最棒的英文寫作教程(五)

你看到我們把“引言”作為倒數第二課的標題可能感到不可理解，對嗎？多數作家覺得要寫好一篇文章從引言開始幾乎是不可能的。最好的導言常常是在作者在寫文章的其餘部分過程中或之後才能寫得出來 。

或許，一個絕妙的引言段或結論段是你在寫初稿的過程中浮現出你的腦海的。或許你覺得你的文章甚至不需要引言段或結論段（見補充）。但是，很可能，正是在後來的幾個階段，你才真正意識到你是如何 寫成文章的，包括所有的基本詳情。因為開頭段和結尾段對任何一種寫作可能都是最具挑戰性也最重要的部分，因此你要利用寫完的草稿。

引言段和結論段之所以難寫原因在於作者往往對此過於憂慮。寫作教師非常注意必須把引言段寫完整，必須有個明確的結論，以至焦慮的作者為了彌補不足而走極端。他們覺得為了顯得自己成熟，見過世面 ，因此文章必須有深刻的見解和全面的調查資料。

雖然不要求你的引言段和結論段必須提供每個實際問題的答案，但他們確實必須能吸引人。錄取官員可能只花幾分鐘閱讀你的文章。你的引言段必須從一開始就抓住他們的興趣，你的結論段必須給他們留下 持久的印象。

一、引言段

在前面的幾篇作文中，我們強調了開頭的句子，這應該可以說明引出每一段主題和強化文章結構的重要性。當然，最重要的起始句還是文章的第一句。你所用的辭彙和形象不應只是述說文章的主題或題目， 他們必須抓住讀者的興趣。你不想錄取官員一開始讀你的文章就這樣想：“又是這種內容”。如果錄取官員讀完第一句之後就不喜歡她所讀的句子，那麼她可能不會繼續讀下去。

你不必一開始就寫導語。你常常會發現，當第一稿寫了一半的時候，導語會浮現出來。你可以用許多不同的有效的導言句。你可從下面找到一些例子。還要記住，如果你用不同的標題把文章切分成各個單獨 的部分，你必須把每一個部分作為一篇獨立的文章處理，再找一句能吸引人的導語。

規範的導語

規範的導語是所用的最普通的導語。一句典型的導語應回答一個或多個基本問題：誰，什麼，何時，何地，為什麼，怎麼樣。他們讓讀者知道應該希望得到什麼。一句概括性的導語是一句規範的導語，在一 個句子裏回答了多個基本問題。這類導語的問題是，雖然有個邏輯的開頭，卻可能令人乏味。但優點是為讀者提供了一篇重點突出結構嚴謹的文章。如果你的文章符合這個要求，你的論點的說服力就更大。 當你需要迅速切入論點時，這些對較短的論文也是有用的。下面是個規範的導語的例子。
My background as an engineer and a Hispanic affords me a unique point of reference from which a constructive engagement in the intellectual, political, and social spheres at [school] will be enhanced.

以描寫行動為導語

這類導語把讀者帶到行動進行的過程中。這對短文章最理想，因為需要節省篇幅；對敍述文也是理想的，因為這類文章以故事開始。
When I began volunteering at the American Civil Liberties Union of Michigan, I was a doctoral candidate in English literature, a budding scholar of the early novel. At the age of eighteen, I never expected to receive so much attention.

以透露個人事實為導語

這類導語公開有關個人的事。總是用第一人稱，且通常以非正式的口語體語氣來寫。
I am an activist with a commitment to fighting for progressive causes through legislation, policy, and grassroots organizing.

有創意的導語

這種方法，如果用得恰當，其導語雖然不能一下子被人感知或顯得滑稽，但卻更加有趣。它們讓你覺得好奇，想要知道文章到底寫的是什麼，或者會使你發笑。
June 1987.

以引文為導語

這類導語可以是直接引文或對引文的改寫。如果你選擇的引文與眾不同，有趣，或鮮為人知，同時不太長，那麼這類導語是非常有效的。在文章深入發展的時候，選一段引文，含有你打算告訴讀者的意思。 有的錄取官員告誡說不要用這類導語，因為它可能會使人覺得你是刻意要感動他們。如果沒有正當的理由，就不要引用諺語或老套語，而且在你的文章中，不要解釋引文。錄取委員會更感興趣的是你如何對 引文作出回答以及從你的回答中可以瞭解到你的什麼情況。

How many a man has dated a new era in his life from the reading of a book. -Thoreau

以對話為導語

這種導語把讀者帶入對話中去。這種導語的形式可以是兩人之間的實際對話或僅僅是個人想法的一個小小片段。
"That's not fair."

以事實為導語

這類導語告訴讀者一個與文章題目有聯繫的事實或一個統計數字，或只是提供關於作者或情景的一點資訊。
In December of 1988, Texas state District Court Judge Jack Hampton sentenced a man convicted of double homicide to a term of thirty years.

二、結論段

結論段是你說服讀者或加深他們對你的資格的印象的最後機會。結尾是一個錄取官員對你的文章的最後感受，所以你必須使所有的詞所有的想法都有重要意義。你不必非要把所有的事都緊緊地捆在一起。只 要得體並且能提供深刻的觀點，文章的結語允許有點模糊解釋。目的是讓錄取官員讀完文章之後還回味著：“這是一篇讓人滿意的作品。”下面是一些發展結論段的有關規則：

該做的事：
1、進一步詳述你所討論的內容的含義。這可包括以下策略：
1）考慮把結論段和引言段聯繫起來，重申導語，使文章前後平衡；
2）在正文段落重新明確前面用過的某個術語的意義；
3）引用一段與你的論點有關的著名引文結尾， 但不要刻意去做，因為這種方法容易過分。應該順其自然。
4）把你的討論放在一個更大的語境內，或說明你的題目已經引起廣泛的注意。
2、使結論段與引言段相呼應。好的結論段利用了引言段所用的創意。如果你在引言段寫了一段軼事，利用結論段把故事講完。
3、用一種積極的語調結束。你可能需要重申自己將在所申請的學校如何完成自己的目標。

犯忌的事：
1、不要概括。因為文章十分短小，你不必提醒讀者你預先寫了300個詞。你不必將你的文章用幾個句子加以概括。應該是個結尾，而不是總結。
2、不要用常用的詞語。”in conclusion”, ”in summary”, “to conclude” 等詞語只適用於枯燥的科技文章的寫作，因此，不要用這些詞語。
3、不要刻意去解釋那些無法解釋的事。你的文章不必那麼完整以至你能回答人們為什麼死或饑餓為什麼存在的問題——你畢竟不是在寫情景喜劇。但應該對結尾作出嘗試和努力。

最棒的英文寫作教程(四)

過去幾年來，我們的編輯們注意到一些令人驚歎的描述變得非常乏味，有些冷漠滑稽的題目變成了令人興奮的讀物。究其原因是寫作風格。請讀一讀為創建本課程提供諮詢的一些錄取官員的建議與忠告：

使用口語體和易懂的語言生動描繪一個真實的從容隨和的形象。

務必使自己的文章讓人讀得下去，不要讓我們讀起來感到費力。你的文章應有高潮，應使各個部分緊密關聯，圍繞一個要點，緊緊抓住讀者的興趣。

不要讓我們感到厭煩。往往是單調的風格而不是題材本身使得文章枯燥無味。

我們的編輯所作的修改絕大部分屬於這五類中的一類：句子長度變化，選詞，動詞時態，轉折和文章的陳腐的表達方式。要是你上英語課時沒留心的話，以下幾點可幫你復習、記憶。

一、句子長度變化

許多申請者認為自己寫的句子越長越好。事實並非如此。你不必用長的、複雜的句子來說明你的文章寫得好。事實上，短句子卻經常能包含許多內容。最好的文章其句子長度變化不一，任何一段都含有長句 短句。你可以試一試大聲朗讀自己的文章，有句號時停頓一下。聽聽你的作文的節奏。所有的句子長度相同嗎？如果整個一段的句子饒舌拗口，或是你讀到某一點時喘不過氣來，那你就把它們分成較短的句 子。你也許需要試一試更有規律的方法。

練習：句子長度變化

一旦文章寫完了，你就把每個句子按其長度標號，“短”（少於10個詞），“中等”（少於20個詞），或“長”（20或20個詞以上）。一個寫得好的段落讀起來可能是這樣的：中---短---中---長---中---?獺６黃菰鋟ξ兜奈惱略蚴牽憾?--短---短---長---長---長。

二、選詞

切勿隨意用深奧的詞
不少申請者還會陷入另一個誤區：認為好的文章是用深奧的辭彙寫成的。當然，如果用得自然，並正確地用在恰當的語境中，高級辭彙是很好的。

要說明，不要只是敍述。
情況往往是這樣，含有有趣故事的一篇文章結果往往會變成這樣一連串的句子，這些句子只是在講述而不是將作者的品質展現給讀者。學生們錯誤地認為讀者不會“知道”，如果他們自己不把主要的論點說 絕。這樣，文章就不能不充滿陳腐用語、套語，什麼“努力奮鬥和堅持不懈的價值”，“學會區別對待”，“不要以為喜歡的就是好的”，“實現夢想”或“從錯誤中吸取教訓”，等等。這類句子如果用得 少，如用於主題句，是可以接受的，但是優秀的文章根本不用。相反，要讓你的故事細節來說明自己。下面的例子能說明這種區別。

在一篇平庸的文章：I developed a new compassion for the disabled.
在一篇較好的文章：Whenever I had the chance to help the disabled, I did so happily.
在一篇優秀的文章：The next time Ms. Cooper asked me to help her across the street, I smiled and immediately took her arm.

第一個例子沒提供細節，第二個例子仍只是假設，但是最後一個例子卻能使人想起一個真正發生過的生動場面，因此使讀者置於申請人的經歷之中。

不要過於口語化
俚語，陳腐用語，縮略詞，以及過分隨便的語氣等，除了最非正式的文章，都不應該使用。
下面這個選段可作為大學作文四個犯忌的例子：

You are probably wondering, what are the political issues that make this kid really mad? Well, I get steamed when I hear about my friends throwing away their right to vote. Voting is part of what makes this country great. Some people believe that their vote doesn’t count. Well, I think they’re wrong.

在類似這樣的文章裏，如果你要證明你對事物的態度是認真的，那麼你的語言本身也應該嚴肅認真。只有那些非傳統的文章，例如那些以敍事體或對話形式寫的文章，才應該依靠口語體的表達方式。只有你 有意識地要取得能傳達自己的意思的效果時你才用非正式的文體寫。

不要老是重複“I”作為句子的開頭。
文章的第一稿有許多非常典型的句子類型，例如，“I + 動詞 + 賓語”（I play soccer.）。要是在一篇文章裏這樣的簡單結構用得太多，那麼會產生兩種效果：其一，你的語言顯得膚淺簡單；其二，在人家看來你非常高傲 ? 試想一下，你和某人談話，而她總是談論自己。這兒有個技巧，那就是改變用詞而不改變意思。例如：

修改前： I started playing piano when I was eight years old. I worked hard to learn difficult pieces. I learned about the effort needed to improve myself. I began to love music.

修改後： I started playing the piano at the age of eight. From the beginning, I worked hard to learn difficult pieces, and this struggle taught me the effort needed for self-improvement. My work with the piano nourished my love for music.

不要重複句子主語的名詞。
在寫有關足球（或領導才能）的文章裏，不要反復使用”soccer” (或 “leadership”) 一詞。名詞的重複其效果和上面提到的“I”的重複一樣使人覺得你的語言膚淺。用可替代的片語代替主語名詞。例如，你可用一些意義模糊的同義詞（如“the sport “,”the game “）或具體的短語（如”going to practice”, “completing a pass”）來替代”soccer”。在寫”leadership”（”領導才能“。時，可用”setting an example”或“coordinating a group effort” 等短語替代。

補充：刪除多餘的詞 （51edit.com 網站提供）下面的單詞和片語通常可以從文章中刪除而不失去任何意思。多餘的詞使文章失去活力，因為它們使語言複雜化而空洞（在某些領域也稱為“廢話”，這是該詞的一個語氣更強的變體詞）。以下 的短語的確使句子顯得臃腫，因為它們要求使用被動語態，即”to be + 動詞的過去分詞形式“。I believe that, I feel that, I hope that, I think that, I realized that, I learned that, in other words, in order to, in fact, it is essential that, it is important to see that, the reason why, the thing that is most important is, this is important because, this means that, the point is that, really, very, somewhat, absolutely, definitely, surely, truly, probably, practically, hopefully, in conclusion, in summary.在看看“X 和Y”這兩個贅詞，儘管其意義十分細微。下面列出的只是許許多多例子中的幾個。每一對中兩個詞的意思幾乎相同，因此，為何兩個詞都要寫上？這些贅詞告訴讀者，作者並沒考慮他在說什麼。陳詞濫調?⒗弦惶椎拇室歡啵愕奈惱綠鵠淳陀腖釁淥惱虜畈歡唷２灰覽嫡廡┯瀉ξ摶嫻鬧氐首椋ο胍幌敫尤非械拇駛悖蛭廡┐駛隳苷嬲魅匪得髂愣撈氐木ard work and effort, teamwork and cooperation, dreams and aspirations, personal growth and development, determination and diligence, challenges and difficulties, objectives and goals, worries and concerns, love and caring.

三、動詞

寫文章時，記得把注意力放在動詞上，儘量少用形容詞。讓句子堆滿形容詞和副詞和增加細節或色彩並非一回事。形容詞和副詞只增加無力的描寫，但是動詞增加了有力的行動。

被動語態

我們的編輯發現學生申請入學的作文最大的一個缺點是經常使用被動語態。你們將從這短短的一課瞭解：為什麼應避免被動語態，如何確定，以及如何用主動語態更好地表達。

在一篇文章中通篇濫用被動語態會使你的文章顯得平淡無味。使用主動語態的句子比使用被動語態的句子更簡潔。由於被動語態的句子總包含動詞be的一個形式，如am, is, was, were, are, 或 been，因此你可以識別其表達方式。然而，有be-動詞出現不一定說明句子是被動語態，在被動語態的句子裏，句子主語是動詞所表示的動作的承受者，即動作是作用於主語的。在主動語態的句子裏，動詞?硎鏡畝魘侵饔鎪瓿傻模粗饔鍤鞘┒摺?

例子：
（被動）I was selected to be the tuba player by the band leader.
（主動）The bandleader selected me to be the tuba player.
（被動） I will be prepared for college as a result of the lessons my mother taught me.
（主動）My mother taught me lessons that will prepare me for college

（被動） I am reminded of her voice every time I hear that song.
（主動）That song reminds me of her voice.
練習：強式動詞與弱式動詞
用最富描寫性或最有描述意義的動詞短語填空：
1. After working closely with my mentor, I __________ advanced techniques in oil painting.
a) was beginning to master
b) began to master
c) mastered
2. My newspaper article on the labor strikes __________ both praise and criticism.
a) generated
b) got
c) was the recipient of
3. Once I joined the debate team, I __________ the opportunity to compete every weekend.
a) sought
b) had
c) was exposed to
4. Samuel’s touchdown __________ the stadium crowd.
a) created much energy in
b) energized
c) really energized
5. Woolf’s essay __________ my opinion of gender inequality.
a) challenged
b) made me take another look at
c) was challenging to
6. As Jessica drew near me, I __________ the baton and took off running.
a) grasped
b) got
c) was given
7. Once my mother had fallen asleep, I __________ the dolls on her nightstand.
a) put
b) arranged
c) set up
8. Chris and I __________ an educational project for first-graders in our community.
a) began
b) started
c) initiated
9. “Why didn’t you ask me before throwing it away?” Jason __________.
a) hollered
b) said angrily
c) started to yell
10. Mr. Franklin __________ that he was our true father.
a) let us know
b) told us
c) revealed
答案:
1) c; 2) a; 3) a; 4) b; 5) a; 6) a; 7) b; 8) c; 9) a; 10) c;


將被動語態改為主動語態

如果你要將被動句改為主動句，必須先找出施事者，即完成動詞所表示的動作的人或物。將該“施事者”作為句子的主語，然後對動詞做相應的改變。你可以按照以下這些步驟來處理你文章中許多被動語態 的句子：
1．全面檢查一下”was” 和”were”這兩個詞，因為它們經常表示被動。
2．劃掉 “was” 或 “were”。
3．在 “was” 或 “were” 後面的動詞上加 “-ed”。
4．如果改變了的動詞沒有語法意義，那它就是個不規則動詞，因此需把它改為一般的過去時態。
5．圍繞這個新的主動語態動詞重寫句子。

練習：使句子意義更主動
將以下被動語態的句子改為主動語態。注意：有些句子無須改變。

1. I was taught by my brother the principles of barbecuing.
_______________________________________________________________
2. My father was given the title by the former head chief.
_______________________________________________________________
3. The house was wrecked by the party and the cat was let loose by the guests.
_______________________________________________________________
4. The house is a mess, the cat is lost, and the car has been stolen by Justin.
_______________________________________________________________
5. Unfortunately, my plan was ruined by Gerald, the building superintendent.
_______________________________________________________________
6. The roof was leaking. It had been leaking all week.
__________________________________________________________________
7. The ball was thrown by Lucy, who had been hiding in the bushes.
_______________________________________________________________
8. Francesca was placed on the first flight to Boston. Her father put her there.
_______________________________________________________________
9. “To be or not to be?” That is the question.
_______________________________________________________________
10. A feast had been created from nothing. I was astounded.
_______________________________________________________________
答案：
1. My brother taught me the principles of barbecuing.
2. The former head chief gave the title to my father.
3. The party wrecked the house and the guests let the cat loose.
4. The house is a mess, the cat is lost, and Justin has stolen the car.
5. Unfortunately, Gerald, the building superintendent, ruined my plan.
6. No change.
7. Lucy, who had been hiding in the bushes, threw the ball.
8. Francesca’s father placed her on the first flight to Boston.
9. No change.
10. A feast had been created from nothing. This astounded me.


練習：被動語態 —— 自由作文

寫一篇100詞的短文，題目不限（但最好與你的文章題目有關），不用動詞 “to be” 的任何形式。

四、轉折語

申請者常常忽視轉折語對自己文章的危害。一篇好的文章在一段裏面、特別是段落與段落之間一定要使用轉折語，以便保持文章的流暢邏輯。沒有轉折語的文章就象一群孤立的小島，讀者要費盡力氣才能從 一點轉到另一點。因此，要用轉折語作為連接你的各種想法的橋樑。當你從一個段落到另一個段落時，你除了繼續講你的故事，你不必再為你的敍述進行解釋。如果段落之間的轉折需要解釋，那麼你的文章 要麼範圍太大，要麼不夠流暢，缺乏邏輯。一個好的轉折句子可以填補兩段之間所缺的那一行。

不必太多地考慮如何去造轉折句。如果你的提綱的概念很自然地一個接一個，後一個以前一個為前提，那麼轉折語也在其中了。切勿強迫自己使用轉折語，儘量避免使用諸如“however”, ”nevertheless”, 或 “furthermore” 這些詞。如果你覺得段落之間的轉折有困難，或想把某個轉折語強加進一個已寫好的段落裏去，那麼，這可能說明你文章的總的結構有問題。如果你對此有懷疑，則回頭再讀一讀你原先的提綱，看你是否每 一段寫一個要點，是否每個要點聯繫自然，前後連貫，結論符合邏輯。最後一段的轉折語特別關鍵。如果對你如何得出最後的想法不清楚，那麼說明你提綱的結論是硬塞進去的，或你的提綱缺乏中心。

如果你對自己文章的結構有信心，但發現自己可能在適當轉折的地方給難住了，那麼試試重複前一段的關鍵字使自己的想法發展下去。如果不行，那麼作為最後的一招，試從以下列出的常用轉折語中找到你 所需要的。

添加事實或資訊，可用：
as well, and, additionally, furthermore, also, too, in addition, another, beside, moreover, etc.

表示事件發生的時間順序，可用：
first of all, meanwhile, followed by, then, next, before, after, last, finally, one month later, one year later, etc.

按重要性程度順序列舉事物，可用：
first, second etc., next, last, finally, more importantly, more significantly, above all, primarily, etc.

聯繫自己的想法與事實或例子，可用：
for example, for instance, to illustrate, this can be seen, etc.

表示因果關係，可用：
as a result, thus, consequently, eventually, therefore, etc.

表示對比，可用：
nonetheless, however, yet, but, though, on the other hand, although, even though, in contrast, unlike, differing from, on the contrary, instead, whereas, nevertheless, despite, regardless of, etc.

表示比較，可用：
in a different sense, similarly, likewise, similar to, like, just as, conversely, etc.

練習7：轉折語

用有效的轉折語（如果需要的話）將下面的句子連接起來。（在某些情況下， 兩個句子可各自成立而不須用轉折語）

1. Ordinarily, I took my responsibility seriously and would write down classmates' names to preserve the silence and decorum of the school environment.
When a different teacher walked in, a teacher known to punish too hard and painfully, I decided to save my friends from his hard strokes, and I erased all the names.

2. Despite the windy conditions and below freezing temperatures, I could not tear myself away from the awe-inspiring beauty of the cosmos. Despite the frustration and difficulties inherent in scientific study, I cannot retreat from my goal of universal understanding.

3. But the sadness with which she responded, stating, "He died when he was a baby,” convinced me that it was true.It affected me as nothing ever would again.

4. Finishing the test in an unspectacular six minutes and five seconds, I stumbled off the erg more exhausted than I had ever been. That night, I went home and caught a cold. Had I followed my survivalist and rationalist instincts, I would have quit rowing then and there;

5. Immediately, I realized that I must dedicate my life to understanding the causes of the universe's beauty. The hike taught me several valuable lessons that will allow me to increase my understanding through scientific research.

6. After my grandfather’s death, I began to understand and follow his sage advice.
I pulled out a picture of my grandfather and me at Disneyland.

7. Often, she had to work from dusk to dawn living a double life as a student and a financially responsible adult. My mother managed to keep a positive disposition.

8. In addition to working and studying, she found time to make weekly visits to terminally ill and abandoned children in the local hospital. My mother developed the value of selflessness.

9. My mother made me learn Indonesian, the official language of our country. Also, she wanted me to develop interests in various academic and extracurricular fields.

答案:
1) However; 2) Similarly; 3) The shock of this revelation at such a tender age; 4) That was three seasons ago. 5) In addition; 6) To cope with his passing; 7) Despite the burdens she faced; 8) From her experiences during college; 9) My mother did not only want me to have a broad knowledge of languages.

五、陳腐用語

根據Merriam-Webster Collegiate Dictionary, “陳腐用語“定義為：”a trite phrase or expression”, “a hackneyed theme, characterization, rsituation”, 或 “something that has become overly familiar or commonplace”. 也就是說，“陳詞濫調，用濫了的套語；陳腐的思想；陳腐的主題或情節、角色、手法等”。任何一項都不要出現在你的文章裏。“陳腐用語”會使你的作文看起來鬆散，思想看起來普通，經驗平凡。記住 以下所列的句子並避免使這些以及其他的陳腐用語出現在自己的文章中。

1. I always learn from my mistakes
2. I know my dreams will come true
3. I can make a difference
4. _________ is my passion
5. I no longer take my loved ones for granted
6. These lessons are useful both on and off the field (or other sporting arena)
7. I realized the value of hard work and perseverance
8. _________ was the greatest lesson of all
9. I know what it is to triumph over adversity
10. _________ opened my eyes to a whole new world

最棒的英文寫作教程(三)

文章的結構可以有好幾種。本課討論的是最常用的結構。請在下面選擇一個環節或在左邊選擇各種文章結構的例子和寫作策略。

一、規範結構法

規範結構是最常用的也是幾乎任何情況下都建議使用的結構。規範結構一般用於介紹主題和引言段的要點，在正文的每一段提供一個支持要點，在最後一段再重申文章的大意或得出結論。下面是申請者（例 1）寫她作為一個政治上積極分子的經歷所使用的一個規範結構的例子。

第一段（引言）
起始句："I am an activist with a commitment to fighting for progressive causes through legislation, policy, and grassroots organizing."
引進主題：雖然她積極參與了許多政治性活動，但她的主要興趣是主張性教育和保健。
說明意圖："In this statement I will explain how I gained expertise in this field through both academic and professional work from 1988 to the present."

第二段
轉折/主題句："At [Ivy League University] I began my commitment to reproductive health."
論點和證據：在學術上她專注於生殖問題的研究，這可從她的工作得到證實：她專攻婦女研究和法律問題，她研究了墮胎法案對國民保健制度的衝擊，她寫了關於從法律上處理濫用懷孕藥物的論文，等等。

第三段
轉折/主題句："While I was a student, I gained professional experience as a birth control counselor at the University health clinic."
論點和證據：她在課外活動中還作為顧問和計劃生育教育工作者積極參與生殖健康問題的研究。

第四段
轉折/主題句："When I moved to a small desert town in the Western United States, I volunteered for a democratic congressional campaign, where I briefed the candidate on abortion rights and sexuality issues in health care reform."
論點和證據：她的第一個工作經驗是作為計劃生育處公共事務主任參與了保健行動。

第五段
轉折/主題句："I quickly learned that this small town was far more conservative than my university's eastern college community."
論點和證據：她根據自己對當地右翼活動分子的研究發表了文章和專欄評論，對反對她的做法的觀點進行反擊。

第六段
轉折/主題句："When my State Senator asked me to manage his reelection campaign, I eagerly accepted since I knew he had worked hard in support of health care and civil rights."
論點和證據：她從創作有效的政治宣傳文件，管理志願者等工作得到寶貴的教訓。

第七段
轉折/主題句："I had hoped to work in the state capitol after the campaign, and I am now working for a state level health care advocacy organization which employs a lobbyist and coordinates grassroots strategy."
論點和證據：她通過研究法律法規、協助負責人等工作，在自己目前的職位上，繼續專注于保健和政治。

第八段（結論）
轉折/主題句："While I believe that I have developed both academic and professional expertise in reproductive health policy, health care reform, and political organizing, I would like to acquire the skills and power to make a bigger difference."
結束語：作者重申文章要點，並且和上法學院的動機以及畢業後的目標緊緊聯繫起來。

例1：Activist

注意：為了教學目的，該文發表時未加修改。
I am an activist with a commitment to fighting for progressive causes through legislation, policy, and grassroots organizing. While I have participated in many varied projects from editing a sexuality education curriculum to campaigning for gay rights as a local boardmember of [the statewide gay rights organization], I am most concerned with reproductive health issues. In this statement I will explain how I gained expertise in this field through both academic and professional work from 1988 to the present. Through this work I have acquired the intellectual foundation and the concrete experience to be an effective advocate for citizens' right to sexuality education and health care.At [school] I began my commitment to reproductive health. I earned the right to design my own major in women's studies and legal issues, for which I took courses in feminism and wrote on the developing legal precedent recognizing fetal rights. During my year at [school] I studied the impact the abortion pill RU 486 might have on the National Health Service, researched the evolving debate about the drug in the European press, and presented my findings at a Women's Studies Department seminar upon my return to the U.S. In my senior thesis on the legal treatment of pregnant substance abusers, I addressed the difficulties associated with prosecuting these women and proposed alternative approaches.
While I was a student, I gained professional experience as a birth control counselor at the University health clinic. I also worked as a Planned Parenthood educator, for which I edited a sexuality education curriculum and designed and taught community programs on contraception, AIDS, puberty, and sexual abuse prevention.
When I moved to a small desert town in the Western United States, I volunteered for a democratic congressional campaign, where I briefed the candidate on abortion rights and sexuality issues in health care reform. I met the executive director of the regional Planned Parenthood, and convinced her to hire me as the agency's first Director of Public Affairs. I coordinated grassroots lobbying efforts on pending legislation including the state's health care reform bill, clinic access bill, and anti-gay rights legislation. I quickly learned that this small town was far more conservative than my university's eastern college community. Many of Planned Parenthood's efforts to promote sexuality education were thwarted. I decided to discover who opposed the agency and what their tactics were. My research uncovered a network of local activists, some of whom had connections to state and
nation-wide Conservative organizations. I attended many meetings and followed public right-wing activity such as the campaign to teach creationism in our local schools. I published my findings in an op-ed piece for our local paper, and as a front page article for a west-coast human rights newsletter. I have enclosed copies of these publications for you. When my State Senator asked me to manage his reelection campaign, I eagerly accepted since I knew he had worked hard in support of health care and civil rights. The position also offered me greater professional responsibility. Even though we lost the election, the campaign was an invaluable lesson in creating an effective political message, managing hundreds of volunteers, working in coalition with other campaigns, designing advertising, and fundraising.
I had hoped to work in the state capitol after the campaign, and I am now working for a state level health care advocacy organization which employs a lobbyist and coordinates grassroots strategy. In my new position I am researching legislation, helping the director design lobbying strategies, and keeping affiliated organizations throughout the state informed about evolving policy and bills.
While I believe that I have developed both academic and professional expertise in reproductive health policy, health care reform, and political organizing, I would like to acquire the skills and power to make a bigger difference. Law school would provide me with the technical skills and professional influence to be more effective in confronting right-wing litigation and initiatives and in designing and advocating for progressive social policy. After law school, I envision working for a non-profit organization such as the ACLU Reproductive Freedom Project, or working in government drafting and analyzing reproductive health policy and legislation.

二、問題分析法

在寫個人聲明的文章時並不是人人都選擇傳統的規範結構。有些作者願意把文章的重點放在對某一個問題或論點的分析上，就象例2作者那樣。她写了关于拉丁美洲的发展的影响，更具体地说，是对工厂女?さ挠跋臁Ｗ⒁馑慕峁故侨绾瓮怀鏊须做到的几个最关键的方面：1）她把问题个性化；2）她明确地提出论点并用具体的实证支持其论点；3）她讨论了问题的两面；4）她说明自己如何在现实生活中积?卮俳梦侍獾慕饩觯?）（最重要的一点）她把对问题的分析和自己上法学院的动机联系起来。

第一段（引言）
起始句："After college I served for two and a half years in Honduras with the U.S. Peace Corps."
引進主題：她先介紹拉丁美洲的發展這個主題，進而聯繫自己在洪都拉斯的經歷使主題個性化。
說明重點："I found potential for changing some of the larger problems of development in a surprising arena, maquilardoras, or textile factories."

第二段
轉折/主題句："While in Honduras I talked to many women who worked in maquilardoras."
論點和證據：她提出自己的觀點，即工廠並不象學校教學中所描繪的那樣消極。她以自己在洪都拉斯所得到的第一手經驗為證據說明這個觀點。

第三段
轉折/主題句：”The factory jobs had other positive side effects.”
論點和證據: 她引證工人工資的提高和教育的改善為自己的論點提供更有力的證據。

第四段
轉折/主題句：”How to balance these positive factors with the often exploitative and abusive methods of the factory managers, or how to control the problems of rural-urban migration are questions I am still investigating.”
論點和證據: 她又從論點的其他方面進行檢驗，但最後又重申自己的立場。

第五段
轉折/主題句：”With the new U.S. policy focus on trade with Latin America and with more and more busiensses using labor abroad, labor conditions in maquiladoras will be a growing human rights issue.”
論點和證據: 她闡述了問題與未來的關係，提供了證據，說明自己已經採取了行動，要讓全國瞭解該問題並推動全國性的討論。

第六段（結論）
轉折/主題句：”A law degree would give me a tool to continue to work effectively and realistically on this and other issues that contribute to the well-being of people affected by U.S. policies and investments in Latin America.”
要點：她把自己參與該問題的研究和討論與上法學院的動機聯繫起來。

例2： Activist

注意：為了教學目的，該文發表時未加修改。
After college I served for two and a half years in Honduras with the U.S. Peace Corps. During my time there I worked on several development projects. My experiences left me with mixed feelings about development and what is realistically achievable. Projects often proved only thin band-aids against larger endemic problems. I found potential for changing some of the larger problems of development in a surprising arena, maquiladoras, or textile
factories.
While in Honduras, I talked to many women who worked in maquiladoras. Unlike what I had read in classes, these women were happy to have their jobs and suffered no health problems or abuse. They earned more money working in the factories in the cities than picking coffee in the mountains. Women could leave their homes and find work without having to depend on husbands or families to survive. The factory jobs had other positive side effects. I saw wealthy families driving to the countryside to find maids because all the city maids quit to work in the factories where they earned more. Wages for domestic workers had already risen and these families were trying to avoid paying an even higher salary. Also, factories required a sixth grade degree. This, if nothing else, could motivate an illiterate farmer to keep his daughters in school.
How to balance these positive factors with the often exploitative and abusive methods of the factory managers, or how to control the problems of rural-urban migration are questions I am still investigating. However, economic opportunities outside of the home, such as those in maquiladoras, could play a key role in changing traditional attitudes that prevent women from developing and using their full potential.
With the new U.S. policy focus on trade with Latin America and with more and more businesses using labor abroad, labor conditions in maquiladoras will be a growing human rights issue. At the Washington Office on Latin America (WOLA), I have been able to write letters to the USTR pushing for the continued review of the Generalized System of Preferences in Guatemala, to the President of El Salvador to encourage the enforcement of their labor codes, and lobbied for a labor petitioning amendment to the Caribbean Basin Trade Security Act.
A law degree would give me a tool to continue to work effectively and realistically on this and other issues that contribute to the well-being of people affected by U.S. policies and investments in Latin America.

三、比較與對比法

與利用直接經驗相反，有些申請者把他們自己的經驗和對研究生所要求的技能進行比較。在這種情況下，他們可以選擇“比較與對比”結構。例3這位元 申請人用了這一結構，他集中論述一本書對他的學習方法的影響。這一結構還可通過變化之前的你與現在的你的對比來說明你生活中的一個變化。

例3： Influence of Book

注意：為了教學目的，該文發表時未加修改。
"How many a man has dated a new era in his life from the reading of a book." (Thoreau) One evening, during Christmas vacation of my freshman year in college, when a formidable storm outside called for an evening of hot tea and heavy reading, I picked up a book that had been sitting on my desk for several weeks. On the cover, it read "Selections of the Essays: Montaigne." On the inside, only a few circled page numbers evidenced that the book had ever been used.
I was supposed to have read Montaigne that past quarter for Honors Humanities Core, but had, instead, done no more than to skim key pages highlighted in lecture-enough to earn myself a decent grade in the course. That was how I approached school then-with the goal of getting the highest possible grade with the least possible effort. Grades have always been, after all, very important to me. Having been unsure as to what I wanted to do in life, I figured that getting good grades would insure that once I decided on what I wanted, that that opportunity would still lie open for me. Such, then, was how I justified my attitude towards studying; it served the very practical goal of rendering myself "marketable."

This approach to academics is not original. My parents taught me that the only way I would get anywhere in life (in the States) was through education. United States immigrants, arriving in 1975 as refugees from Vietnam, our family was forced to leave all our belongings behind. We had to make a fresh start in a foreign country. My father's only asset was his mind-he had a college education. The first five years we were here, he worked at a sewage plant while studying on his own for the country's engineering exam. After passing the exam, he got a job as a civil engineer at the City of Anaheim. Six years later, he was promoted to a position above that of his own boss, then,-that of Water Engineering Manager. All along, what he taught my four siblings and I was that the best thing we could do for ourselves was to study hard. Education (along with hard work), he always said, serve as the key to succeeding and to earning people's respect in this country (which he did). I still believe him, but I have since learned that such practical ends are not the sole purpose of education.
I opened the book that evening, curious as to what I might have missed in my efforts to minimize the quarter's workload, and found more. I found myself in the middle of Montaigne's essay "On the Education of Children." Emerson once wrote that "within books, the good reader finds confidences, or asides, hidden from all else and unmistakably meant for his ear. The profoundest thought or passion sleeps as if in a mind until it is discovered by an equal mind and heart." Such was my encounter with philosophy that evening. Montaigne's words did not claim some vacant chair inside my mind, as if at an auction, hoping to win its bid for my attention. They pounced on me, rather, drilled deep into my core, and dragged out gems I had long buried. "The first lessons in which we should steep [a student's] mind," I read, "must be those that regulate his behavior and his sense, that will teach him to know himself and to die well and to live well." Montaigne's words did not so much teach me anything new, as they reminded me of beliefs I had once held, of ideas I had previously known, but forgotten or discarded as childish and impractical.

That book, read numerous times since, served as a catalyst for both my personal and academic growth. Montaigne inspired me to stress the attainment of wisdom over the acquisition of knowledge. I used to study enough to gather the "facts" of a theory, my essays having been not much more than reports on those facts, perhaps, frosted over with a bit of commentary. I tasted ideas, chewed on them for as long as it took to take my tests, and then spit them out. They did not change me but for a brief grin at a pleasant idea or a wrinkling of the nose at a bitter one. I told myself that it would be a waste of time to try and fully absorb any of the material I was studying, much less form an opinion on it. I made a mistake, then, that I had promised myself years before never to make. I became so worried about preparing a living, that I forgot to make a life for myself. For while my grades were thriving, my mind was stagnating. I did not grow; I did not change.
I changed my major, then, from Social Science to Philosophy, so that I might "study myself more than any other subject," to make, as Montaigne said, "that. . . my metaphysics; that . . my physics." I wanted to learn not just for the grade, nor even for knowledge, itself-not just to impress strangers at a cocktail party or friends over coffee by being able to toss
out names of ancient philosophers, or current celebrities, and their theories. I wanted, instead, to savor what was in the world-to take from books and people their views, to sample them, digest them, to make some my own, to reject others, and to store some away for further consideration. I wanted to become something more-someone better-for what I had studied, or for whom I had met.
Looking back on these past years as a philosophy major, I am only a little embarrassed at not being able to recall the name of an certain author, or the term for a specific idea. By the time I graduate, I may actually have forgotten the majority of those "facts" learned throughout my college career. This, however, does not concern me too much. To succeed externally, to mechanically be able to repeat information, is one thing, but to be able to say that you have created something internally, that you have made something more of yourself, means so much more. As Matthew Arnold wrote, "Life is not a having and a getting, but a being and becoming." To be able to color my thoughts with others' ideas, and yet, blend them into a pattern that is mine alone: that, to me, is the ultimate end of education.

四、時間順序法

為自己的文章構建提綱的另一個方法是按事件發生的時間順序組織要點。例如，你可以以你的生活為主線，根據你成長的各個不同階段，從自己的童年開始，到中學，然後再到大學，等等。此法的優點是它 純粹是個人的，它有助於錄取委員會瞭解有關你的情況以及你是如何成熟的。缺點是用此法可能難於突出中心，而且文章不容易寫得長。你想要說明的要點可能在你敍述過程中陋掉。

例4的申請人在其文章中先用規範結構寫引言部分，然後再用時間順序法。

第一段（引言）
起始句："My background as an engineer and a Hispanic affords me a unique point of reference from which a constructive engagement in the intellectual, political, and social spheres at [ ] will be enhanced."

第二段
從出生開始："I was born in Brazil and lived in Mexico City starting at the age of two."

第三段
跳到大學："I pursued an education in engineering taking my Bachelor of Science in Aeronautics and Astronautics from MIT in 1990…"

第四段
轉到研究生院："At Michigan, my outside interests gravitated toward politics."

第五段
接著寫第一份工作："After graduating from Michigan I worked as an engineer for General Electric Aircraft Engines for two and a half years."

第六段
接著是目前的工作："I left GE because I was dissatisfied with the opportunity for career growth…"

第七段
把我們帶到今天：“I was immediately given the duties normally associated with a first or second year associate at a large firm."

第八段（結論）
結尾句："I firmly believe my experiences in law, engineering, civic activity, and political activism will allow me to be a creative and contributing member
of the intellectual life at..."

例4： Career Switcher, Engineer

注意：為了教學目的，該文發表時未加修改。
My background as an engineer and a Hispanic affords me a unique point of reference from which a constructive engagement in the intellectual, political, and social spheres at [school] will be enhanced.
I was born in Brazil and lived in Mexico City starting at the age of two. When I was ten, my family moved to a small rural town in southwestern Michigan.
I am half Mexican and half German, born to parents whose families maintain close ties to Germany and Mexico. The rich mixture of cultures coupled with my own experiences living outside the US have allowed me to perceive the actions of the United States from a different perspective than that of many US citizens.
I pursued an education in engineering taking my Bachelor of Science in Aeronautics and Astronautics from [school] in 1990 and my Master of Science in Aerospace Engineering from [school], where I was a Merit Scholar Fellow, in 1991. I am proud that success at [school] was both academic and athletic. I maintained an above average GPA and participated in intercollegiate varsity water polo and swimming. Honored as captain of both teams, I also achieved a personal dream by earning All-America honors in my senior year.
At [school], my outside interests gravitated toward politics. My brother and sister were both heavily involved in the campus debates regarding political correctness, womens' issues, and race and class issues. My interest in the political and intellectual arena remains keen. I consider myself a principled and thoughtful advocate of progressive politics and, to the extent that time allows, I expect to be an active member of groups with similar political interests.
After graduating from [school] I worked as an engineer for General Electric Aircraft Engines for two and a half years. During this time,I completed a rigorous nine month in-house engineering curricu-lum (a joint program with Boston University) earning A's in both semesters. While at GE, I organized a voter registration drive that allowed 425 employees to register without having to leave work. This experience allowed me to work with senior executives of the Company and the Union while gaining an appreciation for the obstacles involved in getting both parties to work together, even for neutral goals.
I left GE because I was dissatisfied with the opportunity for career growth and a feeling that my efforts and those of my peers were neither recognized nor rewarded appropriately. My interest in social issues prompted me to explore a career in law.
Rather than apply directly to law school I obtained a job as a paralegal with a small corporate litigation firm in Manhattan. I wanted to experience law from the inside and the firm needed a turbine expert to act as a technical consultant during discovery, depositions, and arbitration.I was immediately given the duties normally associated with a first or second year associate at a large firm. I was responsible for conducting discovery, writing chronologies from the documents, writing lines of questioning for, and second-chairing at depositions. Additionally, my engineering background allowed me to facilitate communication between our client (an engineering company) and the firm. My experiences at the firm have convinced me that I have the ability to work successfully a lawyer.I firmly believe my experiences in law, engineering, civic activity, and political activism will allow me to be a creative and contributing member of the intellectual life at [school]. Thank you for your consideration.

五、敍述法

文章裏寫進一段生活經歷或故事是吸引和保持讀者興趣的一個普通而又有效的方法。如果你想使自己的文章集中圍繞生活中的某一個事件，這也是一個好的途徑。

把敍述法用於個人的聲明文章的寫作最通常的方法是以講故事開始你的文章，然後進入故事講述者的角色提出要點和得出結論。敍事內容可以跨越一生也可以是一段。不必完全象好萊塢演技風格那樣才能抓 住興趣。只要敍述得好，即使最簡短最簡單的事件也可能有意義。使得所寫的文章都有效的方法就是運用細節，描寫，而且要有高潮。

最棒的英文寫作教程(二)

個人聲明之所以難的部分原因是因為在一篇文章中你需要做許多事。與申請上大學的文章不同，在那個申請書中你的動機是沒有疑問的，你的目標也可以不必明確，但寫申請上研究生院的個人聲明卻要求你 把多個主題包括在一篇作文裏。用不著說，這可能是辣手的。

有三個主題可供你考慮：
1．你為什麼要研究這個領域/上這所研究生院？
2．哪些方面使得你特別、不同、或優越？
3．為什麼你夠資格？

你可以只集中在一個主題或想法把三個都包括進去。不論你選擇怎麼做，要記得如果你的文章最終沒表達你上研究生院的動機，沒提出為什麼你應該被接受的論點，那你就已經丟了分。

在本節你還將發現具體文章題目的一些特定問題策略。要是你面對的一個具體問題沒被列在這兒，請務必查看我們的“大學錄取作文輔助課程”或“商學院錄取作文輔助課程”，那兒有20多個不同的普遍問 題的特定問題策略。許多研究生院有一些簡短回答的問題，這些問題在本網站的其他章節都作了深入的探討。

一、為什麼上研究生院？

寫好這個主題的訣竅是說明你為什麼要研究該領域。不要只是說一下就認為可以了。錄取官員需要的是你生活中那些證明你的願望並使得你的願望得以成真的那些可信的詳情。

有個訣竅可以避免給人以“這樣的內容由來了”的反應，那就是密切注意第一行。當錄取官員一開始就看到“自從 … … 以來，我一直想當個物理學家”這樣的句子，他們肯定縮回去。我們知道可提供幫助的是文章的那行句子，但是這些可憐的官員已經有多少次讀過這樣的句子，他們自己也數不清，這樣的句子很快就變成老 一套了。相反，可以用一個能說明你早就呼喚法律的故事來開始你的文章。現看一看例1文章的第一段：

"That's not fair." Even as the smallest of children, I remember making such a proclamation: in kindergarten it was "not fair" when I had to share my birthday with another little girl and didn't get to sit on the "birthday chair." When General Mills changed my favorite childhood breakfast cereal, "Kix," I, of course, thought this was "not fair." Unlike many kids (like my brother) who would probably have shut up and enjoyed the "great new taste" or switched to Cheerios, this kid sat her bottom down in a chair (boosted by the phone book) and typed a letter to the company expressing her preference for the "classic" Kix over the "great new taste" Kix.
在講述故事的時候，文章作者說明了她政治上的激進主義是根深蒂固的，但她不必說出來。她不是只告訴我們就希望我們相信，她是展示給我們看的。

另一個開篇方式是“我爸爸是個 … …”。有些錄取官員說，如果申請人給出的想要研究某一個領域的唯一理由是家庭的願望，那麼他們不僅會對申請人的動機，而且對他是否成熟表示懷疑。這當然不是說你必須掩蓋你的父母支持你做該領域 研究這一事實，但這的確意味著你應該避免你想靠它作為進入研究生院的唯一理由。如果你的父親或母親確實鼓勵你進研究生院，那麼需要詳細地描述你為什麼受到他們的鼓勵，以及你在現實生活中做了那 些事可以檢驗你的動機。

例1：英語專業

注意：為了教學目的，該文發表時未加修改。
"That's not fair." Even as the smallest of children, I remember making such a proclamation: in kindergarten it was "not fair" when I had to share my birthday with another little girl and didn't get to sit on the "birthday chair." When General Mills changed my favorite childhood breakfast cereal, "Kix," I, of course, thought this was "not fair." Unlike many kids (like my brother) who would probably have shut up and enjoyed the "great new taste" or switched to Cheerios, this kid sat her bottom down in a chair (boosted by the phone book) and typed a letter to the company expressing her preference for the "classic" Kix over the "great new taste" Kix. Through the plenty of "not fair" incidents that followed, my mother tried to explain that unfair things happen sometimes, but I never accepted the idea of an unfair world and began to realize that there were a great many situations and conditions that were "not fair" to women. At age ten, I was mortified that all the boys in my Catechism class were signing up to be altar servers, but girls could not. When my grandmother told me that, at one time, because she was a woman, she was only allowed to touch the altar when she was cleaning it-the fight against the Catholic Church was on. Once again, I sat my bottom down in the chair (still with the phone book) and typed a letter to the Monsignor requesting to be trained as an altar server. With no immediate response, I respectfully but persistently harassed the Monsignor and the other priests every Sunday when I saw them in church, until, nearly two years later, I became an altar server. At age twelve I was almost too old to appreciate the new privilege, but there are girls becoming altar servers in that church to this day.Fighting against things "not fair" for women has been my goal throughout my education, just as it will be in my future, and I have had several unique opportunities toward this end.
I have worked two summers in a Sacramento, California, law firm for the managing partner, a brilliant litigator and a woman who really cares about justice, on two of the biggest cases of her career. I performed legal research relevant to the issues of spoliation and antitrust, and I directly assisted Ms. F with trial preparation, accompanying her to court during the trials. Under her guidance I have learned the inner workings of litigation, and I have seen that unfairness pervades all types of law. Having experienced litigation, I know the heavy work load that characterizes trial preparation and can safely say that I approach a legal career aware of its realities.
I have also participated in the [school] Center for American Politics and Public Policy (CAPPP) Quarter in Washington program, which allowed me to take classes at the [school] Center and intern at the National Women's Law Center in D.C. The Law Center showed me the public interest side of law, the area of law that I hope to enter in order to address the women's issues that are so important to me. Public interest offers the opportunity to help
women who need it the most, those who could not otherwise afford legal assistance and who are often victims of the "not fair," of violations of their civil rights.
My classes at [school] and through CAPPP, as well as my participation in the volunteer program at the [school] Women's Resource Center, have afforded me the chance to research issues of the "not fair" for women. Violence against women, an unfairness that maims and rapes and kills, has evolved into a special interest of mine that I hope to pursue through
future work in a sex crimes division in criminal prosecution. For two classes at [school] I have researched domestic violence and battered women who kill their abusers. While in Washington, D.C., I studied acquaintance rape among adolescents: after making an extensive review of the existing literature, I tried to conduct original research interviewing teenagers at a recreation center in Alexandria, Virginia.
Though at the last moment the recreation center directors did not authorize my project, I did discover a class called "Self-Defense is More than Karate" that was developed by the Office on Women in Alexandria to instruct high school students on relationships,HIV/AIDS, dating violence, and sexual assault. After I observed one week of the program, the Community Education Coordinator asked me to research how such education influences teens, interviewing students before and after they take the class, for the Office on Women. Currently, I seek a research grant from the [school] College Honors Program that would allow me to go back to D.C. in the spring to carry out this project.
Fighting the "not fair" is certainly a driving force for me; however, I have chosen to pursue law not only because I consider it to be a weapon against injustice, but also because it fascinates me. My love for the law echoes my love for literature. I participated in theater in high school and majored in English in college because I enjoy analyzing the subtleties, innuendos, and themes that serve as the foundation of a literary work or a dramatic performance. I strive to understand the stories behind the characters involved. I am awed by the power of language and the influence art and literature can have on the values, thoughts, and actions of the audience. So goes the influence on the law: they call it "courtroom drama" for a reason. Just as literature tells a story, so does each legal case, be it criminal or civil; the way in which the law applies to each case must be analyzed and, in some instances, constructed.Law reflects as much as it influences the beliefs of the people it governs.
Both law and literature are instruments of change. Furthermore, literature and law can give voice to people who have been traditionally silenced. Just as I love so much to hear the voices of others through literature, I want to use my voice in the realm of the law, calling out "not fair" for those who have not been heard. I want to have a positive influence on the lives of women and all people, be it in the civil or criminal realm, and in law school I hope to gain the tools to do just that.

二、為什麼有資格？

另一個主題是論述你的經驗和資格，這兩者是你進研究生院和成為你的研究領域一員並能為之做出貢獻所必須的。你的工作經驗或在自己領域的研究經驗總是你能提供的最好證據。如果你沒有這方面的經驗 ，那麼考慮你有什麼與之有關的其他經驗。這裏要遵循的規則是：有的話，就利用它。

研究領域的經驗

和你的研究領域有關的直接經驗是你的文章中要論述的最理想的經驗。這裏須記住的重要一點是你有什麼經驗，有多少經驗，都應該提到，不管你自己覺得多麼微不足道。以下提供的文章作為例子，它們的 作者分別是一位HIV的顧問（例2）和一位具有ER經驗的申請人（例3）寫的。他們都在申請醫學院。

研究經驗

千萬注意：不要只集中在你的研究題目，除非那是你的研究領域的標準做法，而且你必須把主要思想概括出來。過分依賴自己的研究，你的文章讀起來就會顯得枯燥乏味。注意不要濫用行話或專業術語。如 果那是你描寫自己的項目所必須，你當然別無選擇。但是在文章裏包含行話或專業術語只是因為你能夠這樣做，那是不會引起人家的興趣的。例如，這位申請人（例3），探討科技和醫學術語的使用，但又?肟廡┦跤錚俗愎壞氖奔浣沂舅約焊鋈說姆羌際跣緣囊幻妗?

不尋常的研究領域的經驗
即使你沒有正式的經驗，你可能還會有值得一提的研究領域方面的經驗。或許，你是個優秀的業餘天文學家，或者在你決定攻讀博士學位之前，幾年來你就一直在研究量子物理學。這位申請人（例4）描述?艘桓雋釗俗琶緣某曬適隆＞」蘢髡咼揮芯降難盜罰揮芯椋宜荒芴峁┮桓?5美元的Johnson & Johnson 藥箱，她被迫違反規定在洪都拉斯的一個村莊當了一個夏天的醫生。

例2：哈佛大學醫學院文章

注意：為了教學目的，該文發表時未加修改。
High School Teacher with AIDS; SCID/Genetics Research Experience; HIV Counselor Before I found out that my high school Spanish teacher was HIV-positive, AIDS was not much more than a bunch of statistics to me. The disease, its course, and the people afflicted with it seemed alien to my life-as distant as the continent from which the virus was supposed to have sprung. Then Mr. T. stopped coming to school. When he reappeared a few months later to wish us well on the advanced placement exam, his face looked sallow. His voice, once a thunderous bass that rumbled in class and reverberated down the hallway, was weak and thin. Seeing my teacher looking so unfamiliar was my shocking introduction to AIDS. I felt as if I were in the presence of a stranger, this mysterious disease, who was insulting Mr. T. right in front of my eyes. I wanted to know who this stranger was.
I entered college, believing that biology could explain to me why life's processes went awry. I learned that the body is exquisitely complex, but I was reassured by the underlying theme of systems. Even if I didn't know all the molecules and connections, there seemed no denying that a fundamental order existed.
From physiology to cell biology to molecular genetics, my classes presented smaller and smaller systems to explain the origins of diseases. Finally, in genes, with their innocuous four letter alphabet, I felt I was learning the foundation of it all. If biology provided the keys to understanding life, then genetics must be the master key (if only we could see some of the doors we were trying to open). During two summers in a research laboratory at The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, I helped track down the gene causing X-linked severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID).
Even though AIDS and SCID are very different diseases (SCID is exclusively hereditary), each compromises the body's defense mechanisms against foreign pathogens. I felt this was a significant connection. In SCID, I was meeting a distant cousin of AIDS. Learning about common themes of immunodeficiency disorders, such as the perils of opportunistic infections, helped me to begin to understand what had happened to Mr. T. In the SCID laboratory, and in classroom seminars on infectious diseases, science was helping me demystify disease.
In the same year that Mr. T. became ill, my grandfather died during bypass surgery and my father underwent chemotherapy and radiation treatment for colon cancer. Since then, disease has had a human face for me. To better understand how people deal with disease or the fear of disease, I've become a volunteer counselor in an HIV clinic.
Speaking to people who come in for free testing, I've found that discussing HIV, getting the scary words (and acronyms) out in the open, is a way for many people to release their anxiety. Through expression in their own words, they make the disease real, which helps them to see that it is also preventable. Then, they often take the next step, making specific goals to maintain their health, whether they are HIV-negative or positive. What science in class and lab did for me in confronting the difficult issues of AIDS, talk does for my clients.
As an HIV counselor in an anonymous clinic, I feel both the potential of my role and its limits. I can't go home with my clients to remind them to keep condoms under the bed, but I can help them make a plan-something that could stay with them much longer than the information I offer. At the end of one session, one client surprised me with his response to a question I had asked: "What do you think you'll do with the HIV information?" There was a silence in the counseling room as the client pondered, but I recall sensing the comfort of the silence. This was a session that seemed to be producing the potential for a breakthrough (not every session does), and I waited patiently. He responded, "I think I'll ask my girlfriend to use her own needles." Then, the client thanked me for having asked the question. I was thrown. My client proposed a strategy for reducing his HIV risk, but he didn't address what was likely his main issue-heroin use. Should I validate his plan? In effect, that's what I did, because I didn't challenge the drug issue. When he left the clinic, I practically wanted to follow him out the door. I wondered if I would ever see him again and be able to ask him how his plan was going. I wondered if he would ultimately seek help for his drug use. My supervisor reminded me that I had done my job as an HIV counselor. I had helped the client make a plan; he had even thanked me for it.
And I can thank him in return. He reminded me that although I have worked to understand disease in the classroom, the laboratory, and the clinic, I still have much to learn about caring for all aspects of a patient's health. I am eager to continue the learning process in the New Pathway Program at Harvard Medical School.

例3：哈佛大學醫學院文章

注意：為了教學目的，該文發表時未加修改。
Radiation Oncology Volunteer; Biochemical Lab Experience; Neurosurgery Research; ER Volunteer; English Language Tutor; Student Advisor; Community Service "Carl, the woman we're about to meet will receive her first palliative treatment today," said Dr. A., an Attending in Radiation Oncology. He continued to explain her case as we walked briskly down the hallways of the hospital. I followed him into the radiation treatment room to meet the
patient and learn about the procedure which, sadly, would not eradicate her disease. Since then, I have met with him weekly throughout this summer to learn about radiation oncology and medicine in general. Through experiences such as these, I have learned much about the profession of medicine. I want to become a physician for the intellectual challenges and rewards that come from helping others.
I first became interested in medical research by working in a biochemical engineering laboratory at MIT. For over two years I explored the medically related field, biotechnology. I have led experiments involving fermentation bioreactors and trained two inexperienced undergraduates. Recently, I presented a poster entitled "Effect of Antifoam during Filtration of Recombinant Bacterial Broth" at a New England Society for Industrial Microbiology colloquium. Enjoying the biomedical rather than engineering aspects of the work, I have shifted my career interests to medicine.Last summer, I expanded my interest in medicine by working for the Neurosurgery Department at Brigham and Women's Hospital. After a short training period, I worked independently on three research projects: Clonality analysis of schwannomas, clonality analysis of a multiple meningioma, and the loss of heterozygosity (LOH) screening of pituitary adenomas. I developed a strong interest in my work when I observed my mentor, Dr. Peter Black, remove brain tumors in the operating room. After the initial shock and amazement of seeing the exposed brain of a conscious patient, I thought more about the connections between this clinical work and my research. While my projects' objective was to gain a better understanding of tumors, the ultimate goal is to prevent and cure tumors to save human lives-the very people whom I had seen on the operating table! With this thought in mind, I found the motivation to complete the short-term objectives of my projects. I will be the second author of a paper, entitled "Clonality Analysis of Schwannomas," which will be submitted to Neurosurgery.
This summer, as a participant in NYU Medical Center's Summer Undergraduate Research Program (S.U.R.P.), I am learning even more about research and clinical medicine. In my work, I am determining the effect of the absence of the N-ras protooncogene on induced tumorigenesis. By conducting molecular oncology research for another summer, I have greatly expanded my knowledge and interest in the field. In addition, through my experiences in the Radiation Oncology Department with Dr. S., I clearly see the greater purpose of medical research beyond personal intellectual gratification. In the case of cancer and many other diseases, research is the only way to overcome the limitations of current clinical treatments.
I believe that one of the greatest joys and privileges of physicians are their abilities to directly aid and affect a community. While becoming interested in the science of medicine through research, I have explored human service to understand the art of medicine. When I volunteered in the Emergency Room of New England Medical Center during my sophomore year, many physicians impressed me with their sensitivity and compassion. When not assisting the hospital staff, I took every opportunity to comfort patients who felt scared and vulnerable. During that same year, I also tutored a middle-aged woman in English as a Second Language. It was challenging to teach her vocabulary and sentence structure since, initially, simple communication with her had been difficult. Helping her pass the high school equivalency exam made all of my efforts worthwhile. In addition, I have been an Associate Advisor for freshmen for the past two years. In this role, I have helped first year students adjust to college life. Not only have I played the role of academic mentor, but I have also become an intimate friend and personal tutor to my advisees. For my efforts, I won the annual Outstanding Associate Advisor Award.
Besides individual volunteering, I have taken the initiative to help the local community on a greater scale. As Community Service Chair for the Chinese Student's Club for the past two years, I established a new program to promote the interaction between MIT students and underprivileged teenagers. College students and children affiliated with a local community
organization, Boston Asian: Youth Essential Service, have become acquainted through regular activities. Through events such as a scavenger hunt and a hands-on introduction to the World Wide Web, MIT volunteers help teenagers learn about the opportunities available at college. Along with several other undergraduates, I have become further acquainted with the teens through individual tutoring. To establish this new service program, I have done intensive planning and budget management. I have refined rough, creative ideas into organized activities involving over twenty people. During the planning stages, I have worked closely with professional youth counselors, other MIT participants, and the teens. While my involvement in this program has been very demanding at times, seeing these teens learn and develop their interests has definitely made it worthwhile.
During college I have learned many things outside of lecture halls and libraries. In research labs, I have refined my intellectual curiosity and scientific thought processes. In the local community, I have developed my interpersonal skills and a greater understanding of others. Through it all, I have learned to treasure the simple pleasures of helping others. By becoming a physician, I will continue to develop and apply these personal attributes.

例4：杜克醫學院

注意：為了教學目的，該文發表時未加修改。
Survivor of Anorexia; Emergency Medical Technician Training; Clinic Experience; Medical Volunteer in Honduras; HIV Test Counselor I decided that I wanted to be a doctor sometime after my four month incarceration in Columbia Presbyterian Children's Hospital in the winter of 1986-87, as I struggled with anorexia nervosa. Through the maturation process that marked my recovery, I slowly came to realize that my pediatrician had saved my life-despite my valiant efforts to the contrary. Out of our individual stubborn wills was born a kind of mutual respect, and he is one of the people who make up my small collection of heroes.I admire doctors who understand both what is said and what is held back, who move comfortably around the world of the body, and who treat all patients with respect. I am lucky because a few of them have become my impromptu teachers, taking a little extra time to instruct me in anatomy, disease or courtesy. During my Emergency Medical Technician training, one of the emergency room doctors took me to radiology to point out the shadow of a fracture in a CT-scan and trusted me to hold a little girl's lip while he inserted sutures. The physicians in the Hospital 12 de Octubre in Madrid, Spain taught me to hear lung sounds and to feel an enlarged liver and spleen. They explained the social and medical difficulties associated with the management of pediatric AIDS until I understood the Spanish well enough to begin asking questions; then they answered them. I work now in the Mayfield Community Clinic, which provides primary care to members of the Spanish-speaking community near Stanford University. My job as a patient advocate involves taking histories, performing simple procedures and providing family planning and HIV counseling. I try to use the knowledge I have gained from class and practice to formulate the right set of questions to ask each patient, but I am constantly reminded of how much I have to learn. I look at a baby and notice its cute, pudgy toes. Dr. V. plays with it while conversing with its mother, and in less than a minute has noted its responsiveness, strength, and attachment to its parent, and checked its reflexes, color and hydration. Gingerly, I search for the tympanic membrane in the ears of a cooperative child and touch an infant's warm, soft belly, willing my hands to have a measure of Dr. V.'s competence.
I first felt the need to be competent regarding the human body when I volunteered with the Amigos de Las Americas program in the town of T. in Lempira, Honduras. The hospital available to the people of T. (at a day's ride in the bed of a truck) was "where one went to die," so my partner and I, with our basic first aid certifications and our $15 Johnson & Johnson kits, quickly became makeshift "doctors". The responsibility initially created a heady feeling; a distressed mother called on us to bandage the toe her eight-year-old son had accidentally sliced to the bone with his machete. I told him the story of Beauty and the Beast in broken Spanish while my partner and I soaked the dirt from his toe, and during the following week we watched him heal.
Then our foster-mother, who normally tended to the sick, told my partner and me to "check on the foot" of D. The gentle-eyed, sixty-five year old man lay on his bed, his leg encased in bloody bandages from mid-calf to toe. After performing surgery, the hospital had given him a bottle of injectable antibiotics and some clean needles and sent him home without bandages or further instructions. My partner and I had not been trained to handle so serious a situation. We did not know what had happened; we did not know what the antibiotics were (or if they were actually antibiotics); we did not know if handling D.'s blood put us at risk for disease. We wanted to leave, but leaving the house meant leaving D. and betraying our foster-mother's trust. So we injected the antibiotics and cleaned and
bandaged the wound every day for our remaining two weeks in Honduras although we felt ill-equipped for the responsibility, crippled by our ignorance and lack of supplies.
In T., I did not feel qualified to receive the trust the townspeople gave so willingly. As an HIV-antibody test counselor in California, I struggle everyday to win my clients' confidence. Somehow a twenty-one-year-old, Caucasian female must be sincere, knowledgeable and open enough to earn the respect of a fifty-five-year-old man who could be her father, a high school sophomore, an ex-drug addict, and a pregnant Latina woman. My clients are black, white, straight, gay, Ph.D. candidates and illiterate; some choose to come to me while others have court-orders. Yet to communicate effectively, each client must have enough confidence in me to engage in dialogue about his drug or sex life and to believe what I tell him, whether or not he chooses to act on our discussion.
Speaking with patients, doctors and community members has opened my eyes to some of the difficulties involved with healthcare provision, and I hope I have given some inspiration or comfort in exchange for the knowledge I have received. I want these lessons in openness and compassion to shape my understanding of medicine and allow me to become the type of doctor I admire.

三、為什麼你會獨特，與人不同，比別人優秀？

從“與人不同”這個意義上說，例如，如果你是個年紀較大的申請人，是個少數民族，外國學生，運動員或音樂家，殘疾人，或具有不尋常的學術或職業背景，利用從對你有利的這個角度，說明你的特別的 背景將會給該學院和你申請的領域帶來的好處。例如，對外國學生來說，一個有趣的題目可能是談論這個國家的教育制度如何不同，為什麼他們寧願選擇它而不想在自己的國家和/或用自己的語言學習。

但是，必須注意，在許多情況下，玩不同的牌倒會得到適得其反的結果。

如果你是個“多樣性”的學生，當然就利用這一點。但不要為了多樣而多樣而反復地提，也不要認為由於“不同”本身就夠你被錄取。那樣會使得我們覺得自己在被玩弄，同時也可能說明你不知道如何利用 一次好的機會。只有那些能證明有重大殘疾的人才應該寫進文章裏。我是說不是目前流行的診斷過分的殘疾 du jour，在我的時代，這叫ADD。

其中的訣竅是把你的多樣性與你的動機或品質，或你能給班級帶來什麼緊緊地結合起來。如果你不能做到，那你可能只是簡單地提一提你與眾不同的特點、背景或才能，而不是把它作為重點。這可是一個很 有效的方法，因為它說明你對自己的條件和能力有信心，而且相信這些條件和能力會起作用。這就好象你只提到你是個盲人，或是從戰爭蹂躪的國家逃出的難民，或是一位提琴鑒賞家，但這些是為了在你那 幅已經十分迷人的多彩的肖像上增加效果。

然而，有些申請人的問題正好相反。他們覺得強調自己與別人的差異很不自然。例如，職業換景員或年紀較大的申請人，有時覺得把自己的經歷寫進文章不一定保險，認為他們這樣只能使別人注意到自己的 大部分經歷都在別的領域。如果你也象這樣的話，不要忘記你過去的經驗給你一個獨特的觀察問題的方法，因此你可以用你的文章把這個變成有利的一面，而不是不利的條件。還有一種選擇，你可以取其相 同點而不是不同面，通過對你目前工作領域所需要的技能和你將來在研究生院所需要的技能進行比較，使你的不同的職業經驗變得有關了。這位作者（例5）就學習英國文學和當美國公民自由聯盟志願者的?榻辛吮冉稀?

例5：美國公民自由聯盟（ACLU）志願者

注意：為了教學目的，該文發表時未加修改。
When I began volunteering at the American Civil Liberties Union of Michigan, I was a doctoral candidate in English literature, a budding scholar of the early novel. By the time I stopped volunteering ten months later, I had learned that I wanted to become a litigator, a lawyer who brought his political beliefs and persuasive writing to bear on some of the most important social issues of the day. My experiences at the A.C.L.U. opened my eyes not only to the complexity and urgency of impassioned legal work but also to my own professional aspirations.
Under the supervision of the A.C.L.U.'s generous and busy legal director, I was quickly exposed to many aspects of practical lawyering. My first job-assessing and responding to the organization's voluminous mail-required me to analyze the fact patterns that various correspondents presented. The many incoming accounts of police brutality, judicial indifference, and prison rape were often moving and frequently suspect. They forced me to temper my emotional responses and determine whether the complaints seemed both factually plausible and within the A.C.L.U.'s limited purview. After this challenging introduction, I was then asked to assist in the discovery phase of a prisoner's rights case. This work was detailed and intricate: my job was to reconstruct the specific events of a day in 1991 while searching for conflicts between the prison's official regulations and the actual conduct of its guards. As I called Michigan prisons for information, sifted through ten years of our client's prison records, and helped endlessly revise our pleadings, I learned a good deal about the small chores and thankless legal persistence that go into building cases.
At the same time, I found considerable overlap between my new legal tasks and my ongoing academic work. In an A.C.L.U. case I assisted in, for example, a judge overturned a state ban on partial birth abortion because the procedure had no precise meaning in the graduate lexicon, and the legislation might thus chill a wide variety of graduate practices. What fascinated me was that when confronted with the task of interpreting a knotty and important text, the twentieth-century legal system made many of the same interpretive moves as the eighteenth-century novel readers I had studied in my English graduate work. As the case unfolded, the pleadings debated the legislators' authorial intentions; the relevant Supreme Court and Sixth Circuit precedents; the contradictory testimony of various graduate experts; and, finally, the language of the statute itself. Like my eighteenth-century readers, modern textual interpreters were attempting to make sense of a silent, ambiguous document by finding ways to situate it within different historical, intertextual, and linguistic contexts. While particular interpretive conventions have changed over the centuries-modern lawyers cite prior cases and not Biblical parables to bolster their arguments-I came to realize that the broader task of comprehending texts (whether artistic expression or legislation) has not. Moreover, as I roamed through the stacks of Michigan's graduate and law libraries, I increasingly began to believe that it is precisely through interpretation, through embracing particular readings of Robinson Crusoe over others or through fighting over the legal standing of terms such as "partial birth bortion" that a society obliquely expresses its priorities and values as well as its blind spots.
I began making these connections partly because my work on the prisoner's rights case had forced me to question my own values and unspoken assumptions. Was I being co-opted by working on behalf of an unrepentant racist and murderer who complained at having some writings and a swastika confiscated by prison officials? Or was I defending the rights of future prisoners who might be writing less like our client and more like John Bunyan, Henry David Thoreau, or Martin Luther King, Jr.? Had I succumbed to the knee-jerk First Amendment absolutism that the A.C.L.U. is sometimes accused of? I thought I knew what public policy I supported but I became sorely aware of my legal ignorance: much as I needed to do so, I felt ill-equipped to objectively assess and synthesize the various judicial precedents that pertained to the case. Although I was frustrated by my uncertainties and limited knowledge, I found myself increasingly excited by the questions I was trying to ask. By the time I finally threw myself into the bittersweet task of assisting a murderer, I had learned both how little I knew of the law and how much I valued the nuanced, committed defense of civil liberties.
My volunteer work left me wanting to do more in the legal sphere. While the law may be too ungainly and inefficient a vehicle to directly change the world, it offers a unique opportunity to help influence people's interpretation of their world. With the knowledge and skills imparted by a legal education, I hope to get back to crafting public arguments over abortion, prisoners' rights, Internet expression, and other defining issues of our day.

四、等候者信件

如果你最近被列入“等候者”名單，要有信心：你還有機會。然而，有很多被列入等候者名單的申請人以為離開等候名單的唯一辦法只有等待。如果學院沒有再提出特別具體的意見，那麼你應該繼續與學院 保持聯繫，反復重申你的興趣，並把任何可增加你的機會的新內容補充進去。

學校要錄取的是那些要來上學的人，對在等候名單上的候選者特別是如此。有許多待選者已經決定上另外一所學校，但還有其他人，他們拼命地想上他們在等待的那所學校。錄取官員只能根據你在被列入等 候名單後所表明的興趣程度來區分這兩組人。

你應寫一封簡短的等候被錄取的信，信中你要：

1．表示你對上該學校的興趣。你應感謝他們對你的關心，但不要提及你對沒被接受感到失望。你還可以讓他們知道這是你首選的學校。在這個階段，他們會相信你的話，因為如果不是你的首選學校，你不?岱研娜バ湊餛魑摹?

2．提及能感動錄取委員會的有關你的最新的成績/活動。或許，你的GPA分值提高了，或者你成功地領導了一個商業小組。或許你當了“大哥哥”志願者或開辦了個企業。提及這些只能有助於你的例子。如?愕惱夥獾群蟣宦既〉男龐肽愕諞黃鋈松饗嘁恢碌幕埃鎦岣蟆Ｂ既」僭苯匭縷攔濫愕惱鏨昵耄緩蠼郵苣愣涯憒擁群蠣トサ簟?

3．認識到學校沒錄取你不只為了一個原因。你之所以被放在等候名單上，是因為他們在你的申請書上看到一些小弱點。或許你的考試分數不高，或課外活動不多。不要提你的弱點，要提那些能增加你申請?櫚姆至亢拖強煽吹眉娜醯恪?

4．讓他們知道你對上他們學校是認真的，而且能夠提供其他補充資訊，諮詢人，等。

無論你寫什麼，你的信不要長於一頁半。那些錄取官員要讀數以千計的作文，他們不想在等候者的信中看到重複的資訊。每三、四個星期發一封信，而每次再放進一封力度大的推薦信則不會有壞處。

五、轉學學生的文章

對轉學文章的建議 （E. Whitney Soule, 康乃狄格格學院轉學錄取部主任）

從一個學校轉到另一個學校是既競爭又複雜的。甚至在學生想到諸如可轉的學分、住房及經濟補助等問題之前，他/她就必須被錄取。

和申請入學的新生一樣，轉學的學生也為一個學院或大學的有限名額而競爭。顯然，你需要遞交可靠的學術性證書。但是，多數大學將要求寫一篇文章，說明你要轉學的原因。如果寫得好，該文章可能成為 轉學學生的最有力和最能說服人的申請書的一部分。

錄取官員每年要審讀成百，有時是成千份的申請書，並且必須在審讀的一刻根據所提供的資料迅速作出決定。他們在考慮轉學申請時會特別敏感。畢竟，那個學生已經通過一次申請和錄取過程（有時甚至二 次！），而一個錄取官員需要弄清下一個著陸點是永久的。

既然錄取官員不太可能有時間給申請人打電話，詢問更多的資訊，問題的答案經常是通過對申請書中現有的資料的推斷得來的。因此，申請人必須預料到錄取委員會可能問的問題，然後在文章中給予回答。

毫無例外，轉學學生有特殊的實際的理由要離開一所大學而轉到另一所大學。而每一個錄取委員會也需要有個解釋。適當而且重要的做法是：申請轉學者能夠清楚說明他選擇第一所學校的理由，為什麼那所 學校不再適合他，為什麼另一所學校會更好。

例如，如果某個學生寫了一篇解釋他要從大學A轉到學院B的簡短文章，“因為學院B較小，而且在東海岸”，錄取委員會可能理解為該學生喜歡較小的班級，想家，本科生人多，等等。然而，如果該學生詳?傅奈惱攏得魎聰膁系奈揮諼韃康哪撬蟮拇笱綰尾輝偈屎希蛭г築的新的科學設備激起了他研究海洋生物的熱情。錄取委員會會相信他尋求轉學的動機。

毫無疑問，如果申請人的證書有明顯的不一致，他也必須在文章中將這些講清楚。對某一個學生來說，問題可能與GPA的莫名其妙的減低有關，而對另一個學生來說，問題可能與他的專業或他的專注有關。

遺憾的是，關於轉學的最後期限、申請書的要求、錄取的規則、以及轉學分的評估等，各個學院和大學都不太一致。但是，所有的學生都應該解釋自己的詳情和選擇，而且通常是通過寫一、二篇文章。轉學 文章是給學生說實話、接觸問題實質以及有把握為之辯護的一個機會。

E. Whitney Soule
錄取部副主任
轉學錄取處主任
康涅狄格學院

六、一般作文題目

《大學作文輔助教程》和《商學院作文輔助教程》內有許多具體問題的建議。如果你面臨的一個這裏沒覆蓋到的有關具體的個人聲明的題目，請你參考其他教程。

最棒的英文寫作教程(一)

如果你進入你所選擇的研究生院與你的工作經驗、學習成績和考試分數沒有關係，那麼，你有何感想？想像一下：要是錄取委員會所看的唯一材料只是你的作文，而該委員會只是根據幾頁文章就必須做出將 改變你未來生活的決定。

因為申請人的研究經驗、本科GPA成績以及考試分數都差不多，招生委員會經常在他們之間相互比較，因此，申請人的文章就成了研究生院做出錄取決定的關鍵因素。簡單地說，你的文章必須優秀。如果沒?懈夢惱攏既∥被峋突嵩諏礁觶ɑ蟶踔煉俑觶└鋈思蚩黽負蹕嗤納昵胝咧興嬉獾靨粞　?

認識文章的重要性是完善你申請讀研究生院的必要的第一步。我們在這兒只是幫你通過該過程的其他步驟。請你從左邊的菜單中選出與你相關的專案。

一、 讀者
你是否想過在你遞交申請之後，你所寫的文章的命運會如何？對眾多申請者來說，整個過程的這一部分的確是個迷。 其實，不應該如此。

首先，你的檔案（申請表，成績報告單，考試分數，推薦信，以及作文）將全部地至少由一位元，通常是二、三位錄取委員會成員閱讀。這不僅說明了對你的申請總不會根據諸如你的GPA或GRE分數等的其中一 個因素而被簡單化處理，而且還說明了無論你的分數如何，無論好還是不好，你的文章仍會得到一定的關注。

錄取官員大約花10到40分鐘看一套文章。有個官員解釋說：

文章是商學院申請材料中極大的一部分。它們非常重要，因此多數顧問要花很多時間閱讀、評議。我們一天可能讀二十套，包括晚上帶回家讀的。

一天讀二十套，就是說100多篇！ 所以，當被問到什麼是他們最煩惱的事時，這些官員回答說：“乏味的文章！”“千篇一律！”當被問到什麼是他們要給申請者的首要勸告時，他們回答說：“要用心去寫，並且內容要有趣味！”

一旦一份申請表已經第一次被快速讀過，它將被放入以下其中的一疊：接受，拒絕，不肯定。有個委員會成員說：

“一般說來，有兩類檔案很容易通過，並且不須兩個以上的人閱讀： 一類是確實非常優秀，因為其案卷材料就那麼突出；另一類也確實非常突出，因為其案卷材料是那麼不理想。”

如果你的申請表被放到“接受”或“拒絕”一類，通常會由另一個人再閱讀並加以確定。如果申請被評為“可接受的”，則通常由系主任再複讀。如果第二個閱讀的人同意第一個閱讀的人的評價意見，則該 過程就算完成。所有其他申請---通常達到75%--- 則放到“不肯定”一疊。而這一疊又被分為“可能接受”，“可能拒絕”和“不肯定”，依此再進行下去。

你的申請停留在“不肯定”一疊的時間越長，你的編號和背景同該疊的其他編號和背景就越類似。當競爭變得嚴峻時，實際上，你的文章就是使你的背景和經驗“起死回生”的唯一工具，文章會使你區別於 其他同樣的申請者。

二、“他們”尋找什麼
（錄取官員的評語用斜體表示。）

當錄取委員會成員看你的整個案卷材料（成績報告單，GRE分數，申請表，推薦信，和個人聲明）時，他們所要找的基本上是相同的。該申請者在該校能否在學術上取得成就，在畢業時他能否在該領域有所?ㄊ鰨?

但是當委員會成員細看你的文章時，他們的焦點卻從可量化與客觀變得模糊主觀。例如，與我們談話的錄取官員說，他們看文章是因為他們必須瞭解一個真實的活生生的人的性格和品德。正如一位官員所說 ：“在未來的三年我將和這個人在一起，所以我要選擇某個我認為我私獠⑶椅夷芟不兜娜恕！?

A．動機
錄取委員會期望你的文章裏已經簡明扼要地回答了“為什麼”這個問題。他們希望通過你的文章瞭解你的動機並評價你對研究該領域的承諾。

每篇文章都應該集中回答“為什麼”這個問題。換句話說，為什麼研究法律？為什麼在現在？為什麼在這兒？為什麼選擇我們？當然，還有，為什麼是你？

你在從這個輔助課程得到有關的忠告、建議的同時，請不要忘記你寫文章的最終目的。你必須讓錄取委員會的成員相信你是適合他們學校的。我們所告訴你的應作為達到這一目的的一個方法，因此，要經常 提醒自己，關注全局，從該過程的瑣碎細節中走出來。

B．寫作/交際技能
文章的另一個明顯的功能是展現你的語言能力和寫的技能。

交流思想以及把自己的思想熟練地表達出來的能力對取得學術領域的成功是必不可少的，而優秀的作品則來自良好的語言交際技能。

在這個水準的學生，期望他們具有，但不要求他們追求，良好的寫的技能。因此，一篇寫得很漂亮的文章可能不會讓你進入研究生院，但是一篇十分蹩腳的文章卻能使你落榜。

該申請者是否掌握了英語語言？是否有扎實的寫作風格和組織自己思想的能力？一個學生要取得成就這些都是重要因素。難道在文章當中這些就不是重要因素？

C．一個真實的人
正如前面所提到的錄取委員會所說的，他們在個人聲明中所要尋找的最重要的是一個真實的、活生生的人。

請將你的臉給我們看。不是為我們，而是為你自己。畢竟，一個人要比一串不具人格的數位和一系列成績更容易被接受。

鑒於此，對於這一點你不會感到驚訝：每當我們請錄取官員和研究生就文章提出他們最重要的忠告、建議時，我們幾乎每次都收到同樣的回答。雖然有許多不同的表達方式（要誠實，要真誠，要獨特，要有 個性，等等），但總是離不開這一點：要自然。

錄取官員們要讀大量的文章，同任何人一樣，我們也覺得乏味。那些能使我們感興趣的並且符合要求寫的文章是那些能使我們瞭解該人的文章。

遺憾的是，用文字取得這樣的交際水準並非人人都能自然地做到的。但這並不意味著不能學會。為作到委員會需要的這種真誠，我們列舉如下四點忠告。

但是請記住，即使有了這些忠告，建議，你的作文給人的印象也可能難於在你的文章中得到測定。因此，一個好的辦法是將你寫好的文章讓那些客觀的人們---最好是那些事先不怎麼瞭解你的人--- 先讀一讀。在他們閱讀時，請他們描述一下他們想像中的這種人。他們所描述的人與你想要表現的人是否一致。如果他們的描述聽起來模糊不清，或是他們表達有困難，那麼說明你所給他的可能不是一張明 白清晰的圖像。

D．個性化
將自己寫進聲明裏去的最好的方法是使文章個性化。你這樣做了，你的文章就自然會更加有趣，更具吸引力，這有助於使你的文章從委員會那個星期要審讀的數百篇其他文章中突出出來。

盡可能使你的文章個性化。雷同的文章不僅讀起來乏味，而且浪費時間，因為這些文章沒告訴你任何可幫助你更好地瞭解有關該申請人的情況。

使自己的文章個性化是什麼意思？這是說丟掉那些形式的東西，寫些對你有真正意義的內容。也就是說在文章裏你必須包括你生活中的一段經歷或軼事，用豐富、詳實、生動活潑的手法加以描述，讓人讀來 如見其人。

表達你的思想和情感，而不只是事實和想法。交流真實的經驗。我們需要瞭解你的生活中已經接觸過什麼。

但是。請切記：一段真實描述不一定非要傷感的或催人淚下才算個性化。

一個描寫個人心靈頓悟的故事、悲劇、生活變遷、或石破天驚的重大事件對一篇有分量的文章並非必要。

能有真正生活變遷事件可寫的學生只是少數。實際上，那些過分依賴“重大經歷”的學生經常沒能充分發揮自己的能力。他們常常不考慮他們真正涉獵過什麼，或對什麼感興趣過，因為他們的注意力全集中 在他們認為會感動錄取委員會成員的題目上。他們寫到生與死事件時過於情緒化，原因是他們認為這是最有意義的，足以使自己顯得內省和成熟。然而，情況往往是：他們依靠經歷本身來為自己辯護，而從 未具體說明這個經歷如何改變了他們，或舉出一個真實的例子說明他們情緒上的反應使得他們想上法學院的願望變得有意義。換句話說，他們的文章沒有個性。

E．詳實，詳實，再詳實
要使得你的文章個性化，必須詳實。

籠統含糊的表達不可能是好的文章。重點該放在小事上，放在能使你的敍述具體又與眾不同。

運用細節意味著具體化。要說明，而不是告知，你是什麼樣的人：每次說自己是什麼樣的人時，都要有真實的經驗為背景加以說明。正是這些細節使得你的描述與眾不同，具有意義。

請看下面該申請人所用的細節。他的文章是這樣開頭的：
One evening, during Christmas vacation of my freshman year in college, when a formidable storm outside called for an evening of hot tea and heavy reading, I picked up a book that had been sitting on my desk for several weeks.
（在我進大學第一年的耶誕節假期的一天傍晚，外邊是一場可怕的風暴，我則需要整晚喝熱茶，以完成繁重的閱讀任務。那起一本書，它在桌上已經有好幾個星期了。）

注意，他不只是坐下，拿起一本書。他是在耶誕節期間，坐下來；不是任何一年，而是進大學的第一年；不是任何一個夜晚，而是一個暴風雨的夜晚，需要整晚喝熱茶提神，以完成繁重的閱讀任務；他拿起 的那本書不是放在任何地方的書，而是在他的桌上，並且已經放了好幾個星期了。還請注意，在他的文章的其餘部分，他都用具體例子對自己所提出的每一要點給予說明。例如，他從他父親那兒學會珍惜工 作和教育。這是一句普通的話，但是他接下去確切告訴我們，他的父親是如何通過列舉具體的職業和自己的提升來教育他的。因此細節使得經歷充滿活力。

F．講述故事
把故事寫進你的作文裏可能是使你的文章讀起來有趣並給人於享受的極好辦法。把故事融進文章的最保險和最通常的方法是先講述故事，然後退回去描述敍述者的角色，並說明為什麼要描寫該事件以及從中 吸取什麼教訓。這個方法之所以管用是因為它迫使你從寫情節開始，這樣你的文章才可能抓住讀者的注意並且讓他們繼續讀下去。

要給自己的文章有個發展勢頭 ? 一定要使各個部分互相銜接，而且朝一個方向發展，以此吸引讀者讀下去。

本教程中文章裏的許多例子均運用敍述故事這一有效的方法。它們在不同程度上把故事融進到文章裏。該申請人（例一）有點過分，實際上把敍述與文章的其餘部分分隔開來，她在開頭的兩段分別講述兩個 故事，然後跳過幾行再開始“真正的”文章。我們有理由告誡她不要用這一類結構，因為該結構可能被認為是耍花招。相比之下，這個申請人努力把故事結合進去，以禁止南部聯邦旗幟為童子軍所用，但是 他在不同的要點又偏離敍事，討論他最近的一些活動和他上法學院的動機。

例一
*下面以該申請人的作文為例（為了教學目的，該文發表時未加修改）。
At the age of eighteen, I never expected to receive so much attention. After two years of trying to persuade the local Scout council to abandon its widespread use of the Confederate battle flag, my letter to the National Office paid off. Newspapers nationwide reported that my letter spurred the Boy Scouts of America to issue a policy restricting use of the flag. As a conservative white Southerner whose family moved here in 1635, I had to explain that this policy was not just politically correct, but that it made sense.
Nine years ago, I was inducted into the Order of the Arrow (OA), a selective Scout organization designed to encourage leadership and community service. My seventy-member induction class included twenty black Scouts, but I never saw more than one or two of them at OA events. I became concerned that the OA was not developing leaders from one-third of our state's population, and wondered why blacks returned so rarely. I remembered the pervasiveness of the Confederate flag on induction weekend-decorating mugs and T-shirts, hanging from flagpoles and in the dining hall. While I knew the flag was not the root cause of the problem, I decided that its removal would help keep black Scouts in the OA.Therefore, as editor of the regional OA newsletter, I published an article critical of the flag. Several black Scouts quietly confirmed my suspicions. One Scout recalled that his mother, seeing the flags in the camp dining hall, pulled him aside and whispered, "I don't think we're welcome here." More typical was the response of a prominent Scout leader, who angrily demanded to know why any debate was even necessary since "we only have two blacks in the lodge anyway." I could not believe how thoroughly he had missed my point.
Though my local efforts were thwarted, I still believed that Scouting should abandon the flag. One year later, my letter to the National Office prompted the new policy and ignited a storm of public debate. Critics blasted my disrespect for Southern tradition, misinterpreting my desire to help the South as an apology for the Civil War. I am proud of my relatives who fought and died for the Confederacy, but it is not their image that the flag represents when it is used at twentieth century Scout meetings, football games, and NASCAR races. Scouts began using the flag in the 1950s, about the time Georgia and South Carolina raised it over their State Houses. The flag is a response to unpopular Supreme Court justices, not invading armies.
Ironically, [school's] student newspaper has charged that I lack compassion and only represent white male fraternity members on a fraternity-dominated campus. The newspaper did not endorse me for student body president because I refused to give unconditional support to every cause, including de-emphasis of Western curricula and mandatory hiring quotas for black faculty. The editors downplayed my leading role in establishing the first main campus housing for a black fraternity, a woman's selective group, and a multicultural organization, because they believed that the fraternities should have been kicked off campus instead. Nonetheless, I was the first person to be elected without their endorsement in twenty years because students recognized my commitment to the entire community.The battle flag has slowly disappeared from Scouting, and [school's] campus better reflects the school's diversity. While integration is still a distant goal, these changes are small steps in the right direction. I sought practical improvements through independent thinking, perseverance, and tenacity in the face of fierce criticism. A legal education would give me tools to better use these abilities. I am not headed to law school on a mission, but I see law as an opportunity to contribute as we build our future. *
（在18歲時，我從未想到自己會受到如此的關注。我花了兩年時間力圖說服當地童子軍聯合會禁止廣泛使用南部聯邦戰旗，之後我寫給國家事務部的信才有了結果。全國性的報紙報導說我的信激勵了美國的 童子軍頒佈一項限制使用旗幟的政策。作為一個其家庭於1635年移居到這兒的保守的南方白人，我只能解釋說該項政策不只是政治上正確，而且很有意義。

九年前，我正式成為OA的成員，這是個選擇童子軍的組織，意在鼓勵培養領導才能和社區服務精神。在我那個七十個正式成員的班裏有二十名黑人童子軍，但我從未見過他們中有一兩個以上參加OA的活動。 我對此開始關心起來，因為OA並沒從占全國人口三分之一的人中培養領導者，我還不清楚為什麼黑人很少回來。我記得在征招成員的週末到處可見的聯邦旗幟?旗杆上和餐廳裏掛滿了繪彩的啤酒杯和短袖衫?５蔽抑牢侍獾母床輝謨諂溜氖保揖齠ㄒ湓蠆拍苡兄謔購諶肆粼貟A組織內。

因此，作為地區OA時事通訊的編輯，我發表了一篇批評旗幟的文章。有幾位黑人童子軍證實了我的懷疑，雖然他們沒說什麼。有一個童子軍成員回憶說，當他的母親看到營地餐廳內掛著旗幟，就把他來到一 旁，小聲對他說，“我想我們在這兒不受歡迎。”更典型的是一位重要的童子軍領袖的反映，他氣憤地要求說他要知道：“既然在地方分會我們黑人只有兩個”，那為什麼還有必要進行辯論。我無法相信他 怎麼完全不理解我的意思。

儘管我的局部努力受到挫折，但我仍相信童子軍活動應該禁止使用聯邦旗幟。一年後，我給國家事務部的信促進了該項新政策，並引發了公開辯論的風暴。批評家攻擊我不尊重南方的傳統，把我幫助南方的 願望誤解為是向南北戰爭道歉。但我為自己那些為聯邦而奮鬥並犧牲的親戚感到自豪。但是當聯邦旗幟在二十世紀的童子軍會議上、足球賽上、全國汽車比賽協會賽車時被使用時，該旗幟所代表的就不是我 的親戚們的形象了。童子軍是在二十世紀五十年代開始使用該旗幟的，也就是該旗幟在喬治亞州與南卡羅來納州的州議會大廈上空升起的同一年代。那面旗幟是對最高法院公正（儘管它不得人心）的回應， 而不是對侵略軍。

具有諷刺意味的是，（學校的）學生報紙指責我缺少同情心，說我只代表慈善校園內白人男性慈善機構的成員。該報紙沒有支持我當學生會主席，因為我拒絕無條件支持任何事情，包括削減西方課程和雇用 黑人職員的強制性配額。編輯們對我在建立第一個黑人組織的主要校園住宅，成立婦女選舉小組和跨文化組織等方面所起的領導作用輕描淡寫，因為他們認為早就該把這些組織踢出校園。然而，我是二十年 內第一個沒得到他們支持而當選的人，因為我對整個社區的承諾得到學生們的認同。

戰旗已經從童子軍活動中漫漫地消失。而校園則更好地反映了學校的多樣性。種族平等仍是個長遠的目標，而這些變化則是朝正確方向前進的幾個小小的步驟。我準備面對激烈的批評，通過獨立思考、堅持 不懈地追尋可行的改變。而法律教育會給我以更好發揮這些能力的工具。我進入法學院並不是因為什麼使命，而是我把學習法律看作是為建設我們自己未來做貢獻的機會。）

三、 常見的錯誤

與其他任何評估方法不同，個人的作文不是多項選擇，也沒時間限制，而且不要求面試或預演。你可重寫幾百次，可請任何你認識的人讀一讀。與你的考試分數、成績、推薦材料不同，你對自己的申請入學 的作文有絕對控制權。一定要利用它使之對自己有利，不要成為這些文章中常見的錯誤的犧牲品。

校對不周

拼寫檢查並不能查出一切問題。一定要細讀文章，以發現那些不是自己的或荒唐的意思。以下面這些不恰當的文章錯誤為例：

“I am proud to be able to say that I have sustained from the use of drugs, alcohol and tobacco products.”

“For almost all involved in these stories, premature burial has had a negative effect on their lives.”

“Going to school in your wonderfully gothic setting would be an exciting challenge.”

“He was a modest man with an unbelievable ego.”

引言空洞乏味

Example: Art is a reflection of one’s self-identity in the most unaffected manner. Because art is very personal, it has no right or wrong. The type of art that has influenced me most is music.

該引言的前兩句定下了你要在整篇文章中保持的調子：內省的和富有創新的。然而，接下去的第三句卻十分空洞，而且把句子結構框死。要保持富有創新的語氣，你可用這樣的句子來代替：
Although artistic expression can take many forms, it is music that has captivated me.”
(雖然藝術表現可有多種形式，但能使我入迷的只有音樂。)

缺少細節

含有有趣故事的一篇文章結果往往會變成這樣一連串的句子，這些句子是在講述而不是將作者的品質展現給讀者。學生們誤以為讀者不會“知道”如果他們自己不把主要的論點框死。這樣，文章就不能不充 滿陳腐用語、套語，什麼“努力奮鬥和堅持不懈的價值”，“從錯誤中吸取教訓”等等。下面的例子能說明這種區別。

在一篇平庸的文章：I developed a new compassion for the disabled.

在一篇好的文章：The next time Ms. Cooper asked me to help her across the street, I smiled and immediately took her arm.

第一個例子沒提供細節，而第二個例子卻能使人想起一個真正發生過的生動場面，因此使讀者置於申請人的經歷之中。

句子冗長

因為個人的文章有一定的字數限制，所以你必須非常有效地利用所給的篇幅。有時需要刪減一些想法或細節，尤其是那些重複或無關的想法或細節。與故事事件無關的細節只能干擾讀者，模糊了更重要的文 章主題。下面是個交錯複雜的例子：

修改前：Bound to a sacred covenant of marriage, Ethan is cognizant of the significance of remaining loyal to one’s wife and also of the stigma
associated with maltreatment of her. Violating this code of ethics
invariably results in adverse effects, as is sadly witnessed in the outcome
of Ethan Frome.

修改後：Bound to a sacred covenant of marriage, Ethan understands what will happen to him if he is disloyal to his wife. Any violation of this code of ethics means disaster, as witnessed in the finale of Ethan Frome.

口語體

俚語，陳腐用語，縮略詞，以及過分隨便的語氣等，除了最非正式的文章，都不應該使用。文章的語言本身必須嚴肅認真，如果你希望別人認真對待它的話。只有那些非傳統的文章，例如那些以敍事體或對 話形式寫的文章，才應該依靠口語體的成分。非正式的文體只有在作者有意識要取得效果時才是可行的。下面是個不適當地使用口語體語言的例子。

例子：You are probably wondering, what are the political issues that make this kid really mad? Well, I get steamed when I hear about my friends throwing away their right to vote. Voting is part of what makes this country great. Some kids believe that their vote doesn’t count. Well, I think they’re wrong.

句子長度變化

句子越長越好，有些學生或許這樣認為。顯然，事實並非如此。長的、複雜的句子不能證明作者的價值，而短句子卻經常能包含許多內容。最好的文章其句子長度變化不一，任何一段都含有長句短句。當你 把大聲朗讀文章時，你可聽到散文般的節奏。如果整段的句子讀起來饒舌拗口，或是你在某一點上喘不過氣來，你就把它們分成較短的句子。

修改前： I started playing piano when I was eight years old. I worked hard to learn difficult pieces. I learned about the effort needed to improve myself. I began to love music.

修改後： I started playing the piano at the age of eight. From the beginning, I worked hard to learn difficult pieces, and this struggle taught me the effort needed for self-improvement. My work with the piano nourished my love for music.

為了使你的句子長度有變化，你可以這樣做：一旦文章寫完了，你就把每個句子按其長度標號，“短”（少於10個詞），“中等”（少於20個詞），或“長”（20或20個詞以上）。一個寫得好的段落讀起來 可能是這樣的：中、短、中、長、中、短。而一篇枯燥乏味的文章則是：短、短 、短、長、長、長。

被動語態的使用

被動語態的表達形式是用包括BE的某一個形式的動詞短語，如：am, is, was, were, are或 been。過多使用被動語態會使文章顯得平淡無味。用主動語態寫的句子比用被動語態寫的句子更簡潔。

修改前：I will be prepared for college as a result of the lessons my mother taught me.

修改後：My mother taught me lessons that will prepare me for college.

切勿堆積辭彙

你在寫申請文章時，還是把你的《類屬詞典》放在一邊。深奧的詞，尤其是被誤用時，會分散讀者的注意力，從而減低你的文章效果。

修改前：As a youth, I performed on myriad stages throughout the country.

修改後：As a youth, I performed on countless stages throughout the country.

如果你的文章消除了這些缺點，你就能用你的經歷吸引錄取委員會，而不是用“modest kid with an unbelievable ego” （“一個具有令人難以置信的自負的謙虛的孩子”）這樣的句子去吸引他們。

四、集思廣益

這些練習更強調發現你需要包括在你的聲明中的具體要點和細節。

按時間先後順序

從童年開始，記錄你所記得的任何以及所有特別的或關鍵的經驗。從一個年級到另一個年級，從一份工作到另一份工作地寫，注意任何學到的有意義的教訓，所取得的成績，所忍受的痛苦時刻，或所克服的 障礙。同時，根據你能記得的自己對這些事件的感想寫進去。如果你是個直觀的人，可以把時間表畫下來。切勿遺漏任何重要的事件。

這個練習的目的是幫你把年輕時早已遺忘的材料揭露出來。這些素材可以用來說明你長期以來對該領域的專注，或通過你對自己童年的描寫，讓人知道你就是所描寫的那樣的一個人。但是，事先要特別注意 ：過分指望早已獲得的成就或獎勵可能會詆毀你的要點的長處。研究生院對你進大學以來所做的比對你以前的成就更感興趣，無論你在中學階段的成績多麼讓人欽佩。

評估你的成就

把你感到自豪的事情都寫下來，無論它們多麼渺小或微不足道。不要把自己的成績只局限於職業方面。如果你克服過個人的困難、障礙，也把它列出來。有些事情對你並不重要，但它能充分表明你是怎樣的 一個人，說明你的動力是什麼。有些成績是顯而易見的，例如那些得到獎勵和公眾承認的成績。有些成績則不那麼明顯，同時許多時候，我們生活中最特別的時刻往往是我們想要忘卻的時刻。

列舉你的技能

和你對自己的成就進行評估一樣，對你的技能進行評估。不要把自己限制在自己的“領域”方面的技能，如研究能力以及發表的論文。把網撒開。能否把你各種有特長的技能聯繫起來以及這些技能將如何使 你為你的領域作出貢獻，這是能使你讓人記住你的關鍵。請回頭看看上面最後一個練習，列出那些使你的成就顯得突出的技能。有了一系列的辭彙，你可開始收集材料，說明你在過去幾年內是如何表現你的 技能的。你可假設自己正面對著法官為自己的技能辯護，直到你已盡了自己的最大能力證明了每一個要點。

分析自己的性格特點

在技能與個人性格特點之間的界限並不清楚，你可利用這一點。幾乎任何品質、素質，都可放在技能或能力的位置，只要你通過恰當的例子加以證明。如果你在最後一項練習中覺得難於列舉自己的技能並為 其辯護，那麼就把你的注意力轉向你的品質和性格特徵。在紙上畫幾個欄目，在第一欄裏，列出一些準備用來描寫自己的形容詞，在第二欄，列出你最好的朋友會用的辭彙，其他幾欄用於其他類型的人，或 許一欄用於你的老闆，另一欄用於家庭成員或同事。

列完之後，看看哪些詞出現的頻率最高。再找這些詞：成熟、責任感、目標意識、學術能力、求知欲望、創造能力、體貼別人、值得信任、幽默感、鍥而不捨、獻身、正直、熱情、信心、自覺、坦率、領導 才能、目標明確、獨立、機敏，等等，不一一枚舉。把這些分類，列出你已經表現出這些特點的不同場合。你如何有效地說明或證明你具有這些品質？這些品質又如何反映在你的能力上使你在學術領域獲得 成功？

注意主要的影響

是否有那個特別的人影響你價值觀念和見解？是否有那一本書或那一段引語使你重新思考你的生活？事物的相互聯繫可能是你寫文章的好材料，特別是一種激勵你用不同的方式去看待人的聯繫。或許你有一 位可以從中學習的明智而慷慨的導師。有否哪一次經歷改變了你對世界的看法，或使得你成為今天這樣？你生活中哪些事實，特別的成績以及關鍵的事件幫助塑造了你、影響了你的目標？

確定你的目標

本練習的第一步是無拘無束，寫下你想到的任何有關你的目標的事情。如：你的夢想是什麼？在你還年輕時你曾想做什麼？如果你能夠立即做到或成為什麼人物，不管是技能、財力或其他限制，那麼，你會 做什麼？盡可能想得寬些，不要把自己限制在專業目標方面。你要養孩子嗎？你想住哪類房子？你想交什麼樣的朋友？

第二步是開始推敲一些具體或現實的目標。如果你具備目前的技能、教育和經驗，二十年後你希望在哪里？你最理想的地方是哪里？根據五年的增薪，可能的話，列出實際的職位和地方。評估是力求詳盡、 全面。在你認為想完了，再挖得深些。

當然，你的目標是成為研究生院的一名學生，這點是明顯的。但是當你能讓錄取委員會看到你對自己的目標已經思考得更具體了，這就再次強調了你的動機的真摯。你終究必須要有一個研究生院所要求的個 人的或專業的目標。錄取委員會需要確切瞭解為什麼你有這個興趣以及你計畫用你的教育幹什麼。

四、 選擇題目

在這個練習中，你將發現一系列選題的規則，以及長期擔任錄取工作的官員對開設本課程的忠告和意見。對每個你可能選擇的題目，都填上此一覽表。如果你發現自己對任一特定的題目的問題反復給予否定 的回答，你該放棄此題目，轉到另一個題目。

1）我選的題目所描寫的個人事件對我的生活是否具有重要性？

錄取官員說：“盡可能使你的文章個性化。雷同的文章不僅讀起來乏味，而且浪費時間，因為這些文章沒告訴你任何可幫助你更好地瞭解有關該申請人的情況。”

2）我是否在避免耍花招的題目？
切勿用寫詩歌韻律格調或以開玩笑的口吻來寫你的作文。這種寫法幾乎沒有寫好過，而且錄取委員會不欣賞。最糟的莫過於對有意讓人發笑的事情而人家笑不出來的情況了。

錄取官員說：“耍花招是個大錯誤，而諷刺挖苦、輕浮無禮的語氣則會使人厭惡。”

3）我的題目是否離開我申請表上其他地方提供的資訊？
在文章中別提GPA 或標準化考試的分數，那些應寫在個人簡歷和申請表的其他部分。

錄取官員說：“把任何東西都列出來沒有意義，不管它們給人的印象多深。”“文章不應該象記流水帳那樣把所有什麼成績都羅列出來。”

4）我能給自己文章的題目提供生動有力的支援段嗎？
如果你不能為你的文章主題提供具體例證，那麼你就別選這個題目。

錄取官員說：“細節為文章提供色彩，趣味和生命。”“俗話說，有話則說，有路則走。”

5）我能完全回答對我提出的問題嗎？
你能否在有限的指定的辭彙範圍內，處理並闡述所有要點？你會不會把文章寫成一篇不得體的摘要，雖然摘要對研究報告或研究論文來說可能有意義。如果你申請表打算寫些技術性的東西，你一定要能說明 你對題目的興趣，而不僅僅拋出一些深奧的科技辭彙。除非你能讓讀者相信你的確有生活經驗可以證實你對神經學有興趣，否則讀者會以為你在試圖感動他們，可是你的手法很膚淺。還有，要知道你是寫給 錄取委員會的官員，不要有意寫得讓他們讀不懂。

錄取官員說：“真實地回答他們所問的問題。許多人只是羅列自己的成就而沒有把它和問題的要旨聯繫起來。”

6）我的題目能否從第一個字開始就抓住讀者的興趣？
整篇文章必須讓人感興趣，你應考慮到錄取官員可能只花幾分鐘閱讀每一篇文章。

錄取官員說：“要是第一段不能吸引我的注意，那麼和其他人一樣，我很可能只粗略一讀。”

7）我的題目獨特嗎？
有些學生關心的是製造正確的印象，以至他們把一些本來有助於突出自己文章的東西都刪除了。他們遞交了一篇“保險”的文章，其實，那是一篇枯燥、單調、毫無生氣、令人乏味的文章。多數題目實際上 都已寫過，這本來不一定是壞事，但是對一個典型的題目作出獨特而又讓人信服的回答則能取得很大的效果。況且，你在申請的是一個競爭激烈、你可能得不到的項目，因此在文章中冒個險倒可能使你有機 會突出出來。

錄取官員說：“申請人不須害怕公開發表反對的意見，不必害怕自己與眾不同，即使你那樣做意味著包含了幽默或有點爭議。”

8）我是否做作？
錄取官員希望瞭解你的情況和你的寫作能力。你鬚髮表你的看法，講述你的故事。許多人到外國旅行或競賽獲獎，但他們在這些事件中的感想卻與你的不同。

錄取官員說：“正是通過你的文章，閱讀申請書的錄取官員才會感到他們真正瞭解你。”

9）我的題目是否回避了可能冒犯讀者的熱點問題？
如果寫的文章談論每個人應如何崇拜上帝，墮胎是對還是錯，或共和黨多壞，等等，那麼將不會被錄取。如果寫不出讓人難忘的文章，那麼也不要寫讓人從反面記住的文章，後者比前者更壞。避開具體的宗 教信仰、政治信條、或有爭議的觀點。

錄取官員說：“不要冒險激怒我們。”

10）錄取官員在一天讀完幾百篇文章之後還記得我的題目嗎？他們會記得你的題目的那些方面？他們會記得有關你的什麼情況？你給他們最持久的印象將是什麼？

11）如果你正在撰寫有關發生在你身上的一些不幸的事，那麼問一下：我能在困難情況下突出我的感人的品質而聽起來不讓人覺得可憐？除非你只把自己的經歷作為一面透鏡，把你的個人特點加以放大，否 則你就寫不出好文章。申請研究生院和專業學院的人應該完全避開這個題目，除非他的經歷能證實有助於使他成為更好的商人，醫生，律師，或學者。

12）我的文章與我申請書的其餘部分是否一致？是否說明那些未說明的問題而且避開那些已經是明顯的問題？例如，如果你的成績和考試分數很高，沒人會懷疑你做學術工作的能力。如果你再談論該題目， 那就顯得可笑。

13）我的題目是否避免提到我的弱點？你需要首先給人以正面的印象。在有限的篇幅中提及自己的弱點並不可取。有些申請人可能會成功，如果他的弱點能幫助突出他的優點的話。

14）如果你認為你能給自己所申請的學校增加多樣化，那麼問一下：我的文章是否特別說明我的獨特之處將如何對校園的輿論、學術環境或社會生活等領域作出貢獻？每一個大學，專業學院或研究生院，都 希望增加多樣化。為此，如此多的申請人被吸引，都聲明自己與人不同。然而，僅僅說你是個黑人，是個女同性戀者，一點也不會引起錄取官員的興趣。雖然包含這點資訊的文章或許是你的文章的最好的主 題思想，但是你必須通過闡述你自己的個人品質以及你如何克服恥辱或對待社會的摒棄，微妙地處理好這個問題。

在這點上，你的題目將使你產生靈感，這樣文章自然寫成。但是，甚至看起來乏味的題目，運用創新的手法，其文章也可能例外地被錄取接受。在寫文章時，你必須記住兩個目標：說服錄取官員你是非常值 得錄取的；使錄取官員知道你不僅僅是個GPA和標準化考試分數高的人，你更是一個活生生的人，是一個讓人著迷的人。

星期的由來

Sunday 星期日
Sunday在古英文中的意思是sun's day(屬於太陽的日子)。
對基督徒而言, 星期日是「安息日」, 因為耶穌復活的日子是在星期日。約在西元三百年左右, 歐洲教會和政府當局開始明訂星期日為休息的日子, 直到今日, 世界上大多數的國家都以Sunday為星期例假日。

Monday 星期一
　 根據西方傳說, Monday的意思是moon day(屬於月亮的日子),
因為西方人把這一天獻給月之女神。古時候西方人相信, 月的
盈虧會影響農作物的生長, 也會影響醫療。此外, 尚有所謂的
Blue Monday。 Blue是「憂鬱」的意思。星期一是一周工作的
開始, 沒得玩了, 所以心情不好, 不少國家將星期一當作
family washday(家庭洗濯日), 那是由來已久的習俗。
Tuesday 星期二
　
Tuesday 是由古英文字Tiw演變來的。Tiw是北歐神話裏
的戰神, 正如同羅馬神話裏的戰神Mars一樣。在北歐神話
中不叫Tiw而叫Tyr。相傳在他的那個時代, 有一狼精經常
出來擾亂世界, 為了制服狼精, Tyr的一隻手也被咬斷了。
Wednesday 星期三
　
Wednesday在古英文中的意思是Woden's day。Woden
是北歐諸神之父。為制服狼精而犧牲自己一隻手的Tyr,
就是他的兒子。Woden領導神族跟巨人族作戰, 他曾犧
牲自己銳利的右眼, 跟巨人族換取「智慧」的甘泉。他也
曾深入地層, 從巨人族那裏偷取「詩」的美酒。西方人為
了追念這位元主神, 就根據他的名字創造了Wednesday這個字。
　
Thursday 星期四
　
Thursday在古英文中意思是Thor's day。Thor是北歐
神話中的雷神, 經常帶著一把大鐵錘。相傳有一次, 他
的大鐵錘被一位叫Thrym的巨人偷走了。Thrym 揚言,
除非神族答應把美麗的愛神Freya嫁給他做為交換。然而
Freya抵死不從, 於是神族想了一個辦法, 由Thor男扮女
裝穿Freya的衣服, 假裝嫁給他, Thrym不疑有詐, 把鐵
錘交給新娘。於是Thor搶回了自己的武器, 也立即把Thrym
給殺了。
Friday 星期五
　
Friday在古英文中意思是Frigg's day。Frigg是北歐
神話中主司婚姻和生育的女神, 也是Woden的妻子。
相傳她平日身披閃耀白長袍, 住在水晶宮中, 和侍女
們一起編織五顏六色的彩雲。 對於北歐人而言, 星期
五是幸運的日子。然而對基督徒來說卻是相反的, 因為
耶穌受難日正好是星期五。
Saturday 星期六
　
Saturday在古英文中的意思是Saturn's day。
Saturn是羅馬神話中的農神, 掌管五穀, 就像中
國神話中的神農大帝一樣。

英語中12個月名稱的由來

西曆一年有12個月，但不少人並不知道12 個月的英語名稱的來歷。西曆起源于古羅馬曆法。羅馬的英語?來只有10 個月，古羅馬皇帝決定增加兩個月放在年尾，後來朱裏斯*?撒大帝把這兩個月移到年初，成為1月.2月，?來的1月.2月便成了3月.4月，依次類推。這就是今天世界沿用的西曆。

January??1月

在羅馬傳說中，有一位名叫雅努斯的守護神，生有先後兩副臉，一副回顧過去，一副要眺望未來。人們認為選擇他的名字作為除舊?新的第一個月月名，很有意義。英語
January，便是由這位守護神的?丁文名字January演變而來的。

February??2月

每年2 月初，羅馬人民都要殺牲飲酒，歡慶菲勃盧姆節。這一天，人們常用一種牛、草製成的名叫Februa的鞭子，抽打不育的婦女，以求懷孕生子。這一天，人們還要懺悔自己過去一年的罪過，洗刷自己的靈魂，求得神明的饒恕，使自己成為一個貞潔的人。英語2 月February，便是由?丁文Februar-ius（即菲勃盧姆節）演變而來。

March-----3月

3月，?是羅馬舊曆法的1 月，新年的開始。?撒大帝改革曆法後，?來的1月變成3月，但羅馬人仍然把3 月看做是一年的開始。另外，按照傳統習慣，3月是每年出征遠戰的季節。為了紀念戰神瑪爾斯，人們便把這位戰神的?丁名字作為3月的月名。英語3 月March，便是由這位戰神的名字演變而來的。

April??4月

羅馬的4月，正是大地回春.鮮花初綻的美好季節。英文4月April便由?丁文April（即開花的日子）演變而來。

May??5月

羅馬神話中的女神瑪雅，專門司管春天和生命。為了紀念這位女神，羅馬人便用她的名字???丁文Maius命名5月，英文5月May便由這位女神的名字演變而來。

June??6月

羅馬神話中的裘諾，是眾神之王，又是司管生育和保護婦女的神。古羅馬對她十分崇
敬，便把6月奉獻給她，以她的名字???丁文Junius來命名6 月。英語6月June便由這位女神的名字演變而來。也有學者認為，Junius可能是個代?丁家族中一個顯赫貴族的姓氏。

July??7月

羅馬統治者朱裏斯*?撒大帝被刺死後，著名的羅馬將軍馬克*按東尼建議將?撒大帝誕生的7月，用?撒的名字???丁文Julius（即朱裏斯）命名之。這一建議得到了元老院的通過。英語7 月July由此演變而來。

August??8月

朱裏斯*?撒死後，由他的甥孫屋大維續任羅馬皇帝。為了和?撒齊名，他也想用自己的名字來命名一個月份。他的生日在9月，但他選定8月。因為他登基後，羅馬元老院在8 月授予他Augustus（奧古斯都）的尊號。於是，他決定用這個尊號來命名8月。?來8月比7月少一天，為了和?撒平起平坐，他又決定從2月中抽出一天加在8 月上。從此，2月便少了一天。英語8月August便由這位皇帝的?丁語尊號演變而來。

September??9月

老曆法的7月，正是?撒大帝改革曆法後的9月，?丁文Septem是“7”月的意思。雖然曆法改革了，但人們仍襲用舊名稱來稱呼9月。英語9月S eptember，便由 此演變而來。

October??10月

英語10月，來自?丁文Octo，即“8”的意思。它和上面講的9月一樣，曆法改了，稱呼仍然沿用未變。

November??11月

羅馬皇帝奧古斯都和?撒都有了自己名字命名的月份，羅馬市民和元老院要求當時的羅馬皇帝梯比裏烏斯用其名命名11月。但梯比裏烏斯沒有同意，他明智地對大家說，如果羅馬每個皇帝都用自己的名字來命名月份，那麼出現了第1 3個皇帝怎麼辦？於是，11月仍然保留著舊稱Novem，即?丁文“9”的意思。英語11月November便由此演變而來。

December??12月羅馬皇帝琉西烏斯要把一年中最後一個月用他情婦的Amagonius的名字來命名，但遭但元老院的反對。於是，12月仍然沿用舊名D ecem，即?丁文“10”的意思。英語12月December，便由此演變而來。


西曆一年有12個月，但不少人並不知道12 個月的英語名稱的來歷。西曆起源于古羅馬曆法。羅馬的英語?來只有10 個月，古羅馬皇帝決定增加兩個月放在年尾，後來朱裏斯*?撒大帝把這兩個月移到年初，成為1月.2月，?來的1月.2月便成了3月.4月，依次類推。這就是今天世界沿用的西曆。

January??1月

在羅馬傳說中，有一位名叫雅努斯的守護神，生有先後兩副臉，一副回顧過去，一副要眺望未來。人們認為選擇他的名字作為除舊?新的第一個月月名，很有意義。英語
January，便是由這位守護神的?丁文名字January演變而來的。

February??2月

每年2 月初，羅馬人民都要殺牲飲酒，歡慶菲勃盧姆節。這一天，人們常用一種牛、草製成的名叫Februa的鞭子，抽打不育的婦女，以求懷孕生子。這一天，人們還要懺悔自己過去一年的罪過，洗刷自己的靈魂，求得神明的饒恕，使自己成為一個貞潔的人。英語2 月February，便是由?丁文Februar-ius（即菲勃盧姆節）演變而來。

March-----3月

3月，?是羅馬舊曆法的1 月，新年的開始。?撒大帝改革曆法後，?來的1月變成3月，但羅馬人仍然把3 月看做是一年的開始。另外，按照傳統習慣，3月是每年出征遠戰的季節。為了紀念戰神瑪爾斯，人們便把這位戰神的?丁名字作為3月的月名。英語3 月March，便是由這位戰神的名字演變而來的。

April??4月

羅馬的4月，正是大地回春.鮮花初綻的美好季節。英文4月April便由?丁文April（即開花的日子）演變而來。

May??5月

羅馬神話中的女神瑪雅，專門司管春天和生命。為了紀念這位女神，羅馬人便用她的名字???丁文Maius命名5月，英文5月May便由這位女神的名字演變而來。

June??6月

羅馬神話中的裘諾，是眾神之王，又是司管生育和保護婦女的神。古羅馬對她十分崇
敬，便把6月奉獻給她，以她的名字???丁文Junius來命名6 月。英語6月June便由這位女神的名字演變而來。也有學者認為，Junius可能是個代?丁家族中一個顯赫貴族的姓氏。

July??7月

羅馬統治者朱裏斯*?撒大帝被刺死後，著名的羅馬將軍馬克*按東尼建議將?撒大帝誕生的7月，用?撒的名字???丁文Julius（即朱裏斯）命名之。這一建議得到了元老院的通過。英語7 月July由此演變而來。

August??8月

朱裏斯*?撒死後，由他的甥孫屋大維續任羅馬皇帝。為了和?撒齊名，他也想用自己的名字來命名一個月份。他的生日在9月，但他選定8月。因為他登基後，羅馬元老院在8 月授予他Augustus（奧古斯都）的尊號。於是，他決定用這個尊號來命名8月。?來8月比7月少一天，為了和?撒平起平坐，他又決定從2月中抽出一天加在8 月上。從此，2月便少了一天。英語8月August便由這位皇帝的?丁語尊號演變而來。

September??9月

老曆法的7月，正是?撒大帝改革曆法後的9月，?丁文Septem是“7”月的意思。雖然曆法改革了，但人們仍襲用舊名稱來稱呼9月。英語9月S eptember，便由 此演變而來。

October??10月

英語10月，來自?丁文Octo，即“8”的意思。它和上面講的9月一樣，曆法改了，稱呼仍然沿用未變。

November??11月

羅馬皇帝奧古斯都和?撒都有了自己名字命名的月份，羅馬市民和元老院要求當時的羅馬皇帝梯比裏烏斯用其名命名11月。但梯比裏烏斯沒有同意，他明智地對大家說，如果羅馬每個皇帝都用自己的名字來命名月份，那麼出現了第1 3個皇帝怎麼辦？於是，11月仍然保留著舊稱Novem，即?丁文“9”的意思。英語11月November便由此演變而來。

December??12月羅馬皇帝琉西烏斯要把一年中最後一個月用他情婦的Amagonius的名字來命名，但遭但元老院的反對。於是，12月仍然沿用舊名D ecem，即?丁文“10”的意思。英語12月December，便由此演變而來。